Continuismo is a term that originates from Spanish and is primarily associated with political contexts in Latin America, especially in relation to the continuity of power and governance. It often refers to the practice of a ruling leader or political party seeking to extend their hold on power, typically through unconstitutional means, manipulation of the legal framework, or changes in electoral laws.

A tote board, or toteboard, is a large display board used in the context of horse racing and other betting markets to provide real-time information about the odds, payouts, and other relevant details of the races or events. Tote boards typically show: 1. **Race Information**: Details about the upcoming or current races, including race number, time, and the names of participating horses. 2. **Odds**: The current betting odds for each participant in the race.

Democratic backsliding refers to the gradual decline in the quality of democracy in a country, characterized by the erosion of democratic institutions, practices, and norms. This phenomenon is often marked by a range of actions and trends that undermine democratic governance, including: 1. **Erosion of Political Rights**: Diminished protections for political freedoms, such as freedom of speech, assembly, and the press. This may involve censorship, harassment of dissenting voices, or restrictions on protests.

Economic nationalism is a political and economic ideology that emphasizes the protection and promotion of a nation's economy, often at the expense of free trade and globalization. It advocates for policies that prioritize domestic industries, jobs, and resources, aiming to strengthen the national economy and enhance national sovereignty. Key characteristics of economic nationalism include: 1. **Protectionism**: Implementing tariffs, quotas, and other trade barriers to shield domestic industries from foreign competition.

Gaullism is a political ideology and movement associated with Charles de Gaulle, the French military leader and statesman who played a pivotal role in the history of France during and after World War II.

Heia Norge (VG) is a feature associated with the Norwegian newspaper Verdens Gang (VG), which is one of the largest newspapers in Norway. The term "Heia Norge" translates to "Go Norway" in English and is often used in a patriotic context, especially during sporting events or national celebrations. It typically encompasses content that promotes national pride and support for Norwegian athletes, teams, or cultural events.

Hromada is a name associated with a secret society that originated in Ukraine. Founded in the late 19th century, specifically in 1891, it was created by Ukrainian students in Lviv, who were motivated by a desire to promote Ukrainian culture and national identity within the Austro-Hungarian Empire. The society combined elements of nationalism, cultural revival, and social activism.

Left-wing populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests and concerns of the "common people" against the perceived elite or establishment. It typically emphasizes themes such as economic inequality, social justice, environmental sustainability, and the protection of workers' rights. Left-wing populists argue that the political and economic systems are rigged in favor of the wealthy and powerful, and they advocate for reforms or radical changes that would empower the marginalized or disenfranchised segments of society.

The term "caudillo" refers to a military or political leader in Spanish-speaking countries, often associated with authoritarian rule. The history of Latin America has seen various caudillos emerge, particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, as countries navigated struggles for independence, civil wars, and political instability.

A "List of populists" typically refers to a compilation of individuals, political leaders, parties, or movements that have been associated with populist ideologies or approaches. Populism is a political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting this group with a perceived elite or establishment. Populists can be found on both the left and right of the political spectrum, and their characteristics can vary widely depending on the context and the specific political culture.

Jacksonian democracy refers to the political philosophy and practice associated with the presidency of Andrew Jackson, who served from 1829 to 1837. It is characterized by a commitment to greater democracy for the common man, opposing what Jackson and his supporters viewed as the entrenched interests of the elite and a corruption in the political system.

Jeffersonian democracy is a political philosophy and framework associated with Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States and one of the Founding Fathers. This idea emphasizes several key principles and values: 1. **Agrarianism**: Jefferson believed that a nation of independent, land-owning farmers would provide a strong foundation for democracy. He thought that agriculture was vital for the sustenance of a free and virtuous society and that land ownership would lead to greater civic responsibility and involvement among citizens.

As of my last knowledge update in October 2021, there is no widely known figure or concept named "Adam Mahrburg." It's possible that this is a person or topic that has emerged after that time, or it might be a less widely recognized name or term.

The "Cercle des prolétaires positivistes," or "Circle of Positive Proletarians," is not widely recognized in mainstream historical or sociological literature, suggesting that it may be a term used in a specific context or niche group. However, the name indicates a potential connection to two significant concepts: "positivism" and "proletariat," which are associated with philosophical and political movements.

Noel Pemberton Billing was a British aviation pioneer, businessman, and politician best known for his work in the early 20th century. He was involved in the development of aircraft and aviation technology during a time when the industry was still in its infancy. Billing is particularly noted for his role in founding the Pemberton-Billing company, which manufactured commercial and military aircraft. Beyond his contributions to aviation, Billing also had a political career, serving as a member of the British Parliament.

The Occupy movement is a global protest movement that began in 2011, primarily focused on issues of social and economic inequality, including the influence of money in politics and corporate power over democracy. It is best known for its formation of "Occupy Wall Street" (OWS), which started in New York City's Zuccotti Park on September 17, 2011.

The Omaha Platform was the political platform adopted by the Populist Party at its convention in Omaha, Nebraska, in 1892. The Populist Party, also known as the People's Party, emerged in the late 19th century as a response to the economic struggles faced by farmers, laborers, and other working-class citizens, particularly in the wake of industrialization and the economic hardships of the Gilded Age.

Peronism is a political ideology and movement that originated in Argentina, associated with the policies and legacy of Juan Domingo Perón, who served as the country's president three times (1946–1955, 1973–1974). It is characterized by a mix of nationalism, populism, and social justice oriented toward enhancing the rights and welfare of the working class and the poor.

Populism in Europe refers to a political approach that contrasts "the people" against "the elite" and often portrays itself as a movement that represents the common people against a perceived corrupt or disconnected establishment. This phenomenon has gained significant traction in various European countries over the past few decades, particularly in response to economic dissatisfaction, immigration, globalization, and the perceived shortcomings of traditional political parties.

Qasimism is a term that generally refers to a religious or ideological approach associated with the beliefs and teachings of Qasim al-Ibn al-Hassan, a prominent figure in Shiite Islam, especially within the context of the events of Ashura and the Battle of Karbala. Followers of Qasimism typically emphasize themes such as martyrdom, sacrifice, justice, and the struggle against oppression, which are central to the narrative of Karbala and the larger Shiite tradition.