Xu Liangying (许良英) is a notable Chinese scientist and expert in the fields of nuclear physics and nuclear energy. He has made significant contributions to the development of nuclear technology in China and has been involved in various research and educational initiatives related to physics and nuclear engineering. His work is recognized not only for its scientific impact but also for its contributions to China's energy policies and nuclear safety protocols.

Tim Lewens is a scholar known for his work in the fields of philosophy and the philosophy of biology. He has contributed to discussions around evolutionary theory, the concept of race, and the implications of biological research for our understanding of society and ethics. Lewens is often associated with academic work that explores the intersections of science, philosophy, and social issues, and he may also be involved in teaching and public engagement on these topics.

Wilhelm Windelband (1848–1915) was a German philosopher and a key figure in the development of neo-Kantianism, a philosophical movement that sought to reinterpret and revitalize the ideas of Immanuel Kant in response to the challenges posed by modern philosophy and the sciences.

Wilhelm Wundt (1832–1920) is often regarded as the "father of experimental psychology." He was a German physician, physiologist, and philosopher who established the first psychology laboratory at the University of Leipzig in 1879. This milestone is significant because it marked the formal separation of psychology from philosophy and physiology, establishing it as a distinct scientific discipline.

Émile Meyerson (1859–1933) was a French philosopher and epistemologist, known for his work in the philosophy of science and his contributions to the understanding of scientific theories and their implications. He is especially recognized for his historical and philosophical studies on the nature of scientific knowledge, his analysis of the development of concepts in modern science, and his discussions on the relationship between science and philosophy.

Algorithmic bias refers to systematic and unfair discrimination that can occur in the outputs of algorithms, particularly in machine learning models and artificial intelligence systems. This bias can arise from various factors, including: 1. **Data Bias**: If the training data used to develop an algorithm is unrepresentative or contains historical prejudices, the algorithm may learn and perpetuate these biases.

"On the Soul" is a philosophical treatise attributed to the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle. The work is known in Greek as "De Anima," which translates to "On the Soul." In this text, Aristotle explores the nature of the soul, its relationship to the body, and its functions. Aristotle presents the idea that the soul is the essence of living beings and is responsible for various life processes, including growth, perception, and intellect.

The Melt Flow Index (MFI) is a measure of the flow characteristics of a thermoplastic polymer when it is melted. It quantifies the ease of flow of the molten polymer through a standard die under a specific temperature and load. The MFI is typically expressed in grams per 10 minutes (g/10 min) and is determined using a standardized test method, often specified by organizations such as ASTM (American Society for Testing and Materials) or ISO (International Organization for Standardization).

"Artificial stupidity" is a tongue-in-cheek term used to describe scenarios where artificial intelligence (AI) systems exhibit behaviors or produce outcomes that are considered illogical, inefficient, or simply incorrect. It highlights the shortcomings and limitations of AI, which can happen for several reasons: 1. **Poor Training Data**: If an AI model is trained on biased, incomplete, or incorrect data, it can lead to overly simplistic or erroneous conclusions.

The philosophy of social science is a branch of philosophy that examines the foundations, methods, and implications of social science research. It addresses various conceptual and theoretical questions regarding the nature of social phenomena, the processes of social inquiry, and the ethical and epistemological assumptions underlying social scientific practices. Here are some key aspects of the philosophy of social science: 1. **Nature of Social Phenomena**: Philosophers in this field explore questions about what constitutes social phenomena (e.g.

"The Outer Limits" is a science fiction anthology television series that originally aired from 1995 to 2002. It is a revival of the classic 1963 series of the same name. The show was produced by MGM Television and featured a wide range of stories that often explored themes of science fiction, horror, and the supernatural, similar to anthology series like "The Twilight Zone.

Singularitarianism is a movement and philosophy that is centered around the concept of the technological singularity, a theoretical point in the future when technological growth becomes uncontrollable and irreversible, resulting in unforeseeable changes to human civilization. Proponents of singularitarianism believe that advancements in artificial intelligence (AI), biotechnology, and other emerging technologies will lead to a transformation of human capabilities and societies.

"Thought: A Journal of Philosophy" is a scholarly journal that focuses on philosophical inquiry and scholarship. It publishes articles, essays, and reviews on a wide range of philosophical topics, encouraging critical engagement with contemporary philosophical issues. The journal aims to promote rigorous philosophical debate and exploration of ideas across various philosophical traditions and areas of study. The journal may include contributions from established philosophers as well as emerging voices in the field, covering both analytical and continental philosophy.

Philosophy of linguistics is a subfield of philosophy that explores the nature, origins, and implications of language from a philosophical perspective. It involves examining the fundamental questions related to language, such as: 1. **Nature of Meaning**: What does it mean for words and sentences to have meaning? How do we understand and interpret language? 2. **Reference and Truth**: How do words refer to objects, concepts, or states of affairs in the world?

In the field of semantics, "books" can refer to several different concepts, depending on the context. Here are a few interpretations: 1. **Semantics of Language**: In linguistics, books on semantics cover the study of meaning in language. This includes topics such as word meanings, sentence meanings, and how context influences interpretation. Such books often explore various theories of meaning, including truth-conditional semantics, formal semantics, and distributional semantics.

"Sense and Sensibilia" is a collection of lectures by the philosopher J.L. Austin, delivered in the early 1960s, which were later published posthumously in 1962. In this work, Austin explores issues related to perception, language, and the nature of reality, particularly critiquing traditional philosophical ideas about sense perception and the relationship between our senses and the world.

"Incomplete Nature: How Mind Emerged from Matter" is a book by the philosopher and cognitive scientist **Terrence Deacon**, published in 2012. In this work, Deacon explores the emergence of life, consciousness, and meaning from the processes of natural evolution and physical systems. He argues against reductionist approaches that attempt to explain complex phenomena solely in terms of simpler components.

"Man a Machine" is a philosophical work by Julien Offray de La Mettrie, a French physician and philosopher, published in 1747. In this text, La Mettrie posits a materialist view of human beings, arguing that humans can be understood as complex machines governed by physical laws. He suggests that the mind and body are not separate entities, but rather that mental processes arise from physical bodily functions.

"Disquisitions Relating to Matter and Spirit" is a philosophical work written by the British philosopher and psychologist Joseph Priestley. First published in 1777, the book explores the nature of matter and consciousness, discussing the relationship between the material world and the mind or spirit. Priestley, who is best known for his contributions to chemistry and his work on the discovery of oxygen, also delved into metaphysical questions.

"Time's Arrow and Archimedes' Point" is a book written by the physicist and philosopher Huw Price, published in 1996. The work explores foundational issues in the philosophy of physics, particularly concerning the nature of time and the directionality of time, often referred to as the "arrow of time." ### Time's Arrow: The concept of "time's arrow" refers to the idea that time has a direction – it moves forward from past to present to future.