After the 2019 redefinition of the SI base units it is by definition exactly $1.60217663410^{-19}$ Joules.

Alternative to the Lorentz gauge, but less used in general as it is not as nice for relativity invariance.

This paper is in the public domain and people have uploaded it e.g. to glorious Wikisource: en.wikisource.org/wiki/On_the_Relative_Motion_of_the_Earth_and_the_Luminiferous_Ether including its amazing illustrations.

Same motivation as Galilean invariance, but relativistic version of that: we want the laws of physics to have the same form on all inertial frames, so we really want to write them in a way that is Lorentz covariant.

This is just the relativistic version of that which takes the Lorentz transformation into account instead of just the old Galilean transformation.

Light watch transverse to direction of motion. This case is interesting because it separates length contraction from time dilation completely.

Of course, as usual in special relativity, calling something "time dilation" leads us to mind boggling ideas of "symmetry breaking": if both frames have a light watch, how can both possibly observe the other to be time dilated?

And the answer to this, is the usual: in special relativity time and space are interwoven in a fucked up way, everything is just a spacetime event.

In this case, there are three spacetime events of interest: both clocks start at same position, your beam hits up at x=0, moving frame hits up at x>0.

Those two mentioned events are spacelike-separated events, and therefore even though they seem simultaneous to you, they are not going to be simultaneous to the moving observer!

If little clock one meter away from you tells you that at the time of some event (your light beam hit up) the moving light watch was only 50% up, this is just a number given by your one meter away watch!

The matrix representation of the symmetric bilinear form that is the Minkowski inner product.

Since that is a symmetric bilinear form, the associated matrix is a symmetric matrix.

By default, we will use the time negative representation unless stated otherwise:but another equivalent one is to use a time positive representation:The matrix is typically denoted by the Greek letter eta.

More generic PCR information at: Section "Polymerase chain reaction".

Because it is considered the less interesting step, and because it takes quite some time, this step was done by the event organizers between the two event days, so participants did not get to take many photos.

PCR protocols are very standard it seems, all that biologists need to know to reproduce is the time and temperature of each step.

We did 35 cycles of:

This process used a Marshal Scientific MJ Research PTC-200 Thermal Cycler:

We added PCR primers for regions that surround the 16S DNA. The primers are just bought from a vendor, and we used well known regions are called 27F and 1492R. Here is a paper that analyzes other choices: academic.oup.com/femsle/article/221/2/299/630719 (archive) "Evaluation of primers and PCR conditions for the analysis of 16S rRNA genes from a natural environment" by Yuichi Hongoh, Hiroe Yuzawa, Moriya Ohkuma, Toshiaki Kudo (2003)

One cool thing about the PCR is that we can also add a known barcode at the end of each primer as shown at Code 1. "PCR diagram".

This means that we bought a few different versions of our 27F/1492R primers, each with a different small DNA tag attached directly to them in addition to the matching sequence.

This way, we were able to:

Input: Bacterial DNA (a little bit)
... --- 27S --- 16S --- 1492R --- ...

|||
|||
vvv

Output: PCR output (a lot of)
Barcode --- 27S --- 16S --- 1492R

Finally, after purification, we used the Qiagen QIAquick PCR Purification Kit protocol to purify the generated from unwanted PCR byproducts.

Combination of electromagnetism and general relativity. Unlike combining quantum mechanics and general relativity, this combination was easier.

TODO any experiments of interest at all?

OK, can someone please just stop the philosophy and give numerical predictions of how entropy helps you predict the future?

The original notion of entropy, and the first one you should study, is the Clausius entropy.

For entropy in chemistry see: entropy of a chemical reaction.

As of 2019, the more formal name for particle physics, which is notably missing general relativity to achieve the theory of everything.

cds.cern.ch/record/799984/files/0401010.pdf The Making of the Standard Model by Steven Weinberg mentions three crucial elements that made up the standard model post earlier less generalized quantum electrodynamics understandings

As of 2019, the Standard Model and general relativity are incompatible. Once those are unified, we will have one equation to describe the entirety of physics.

There are also however also unsolved problems in electroweak interaction + strong interaction, which if achieved is referred to as a Grand Unified Theory. Reaching a GUT is considered a sensible intermediate step before TOE.

The current state of Physics has been the result of several previous unifications as shown at: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theory_of_everything#Conventional_sequence_of_theories so it is expected that this last missing unification is likely to happen one day, potentially conditional on humanity having enough energy to observe new phenomena.

electroweak interaction + strong interaction.

Appears to be an unsolved physics problem. TODO why? Don't they all fit into the Standard Model already? So why is strong force less unified with electroweak, than electromagnetic + weak is unified in electroweak?