For a closed point $p$ on a smooth projective curve, the quotient in $0\to L(-p)\to L\to L{|}_p\to 0$ has $k$-dimension $[k(p):k]$. Additivity of Euler characteristic therefore changes $\chi (L)$ by that residue-field degree. Every line bundle is associated with a divisor, so iteration proves the displayed formula. The dualizing sheaf on a smooth projective curve identifies $h^1(L)$ with $h^0({\Omega }_C^1\otimes L^{-1})$ and converts this Euler-characteristic formula into the usual divisor form of Riemann-Roch theorem.

For finitely many distinct points $P_i$ on a smooth projective genus-$g$ curve, choose $N\ge 2g+1$. The Riemann-Roch theorem gives $\ell (N{P}_i)-\ell ((N-1)P_i)=1$, so choose $f_i$ with a sole pole of exact order $N$ at $P_i$. Then ${\sum }_i{f}_i$ has exactly those poles with that order: all other summands are regular at each $P_i$, so no principal part can cancel. This is an explicit construction rather than an unspecified generic choice of section.

An initially resting perfect gas with adiabatic index $\gamma >1$ next to a piston $X(t)=-f{t}^2/2$ develops a smooth rarefaction. The incoming invariant gives $c_p=c_0-(\gamma -1)ft/2$. Pressure falls as $p_p=p_0(1-t/t_v{)}^{2\gamma /(\gamma -1)}$ until $t_v$, when the piston speed is $2c_0/(\gamma -1)$. Thereafter the gas edge moves at that limiting constant speed while the piston accelerates away, opening a vacuum gap.

A proper Riemann integral on a compact interval requires a bounded integrand, but a derivative can be unbounded. For $f(x)=x^2\sin (1/x^2)$ away from zero and $f(0)=0$, the difference quotient gives $f^{\prime }(0)=0$, whereas $f^{\prime }(x)=2x\sin (1/x^2)-2\cos (1/x^2)/x$ for $x\ne 0$. At $x_n=(2\pi n{)}^{-1/2}$, this derivative is $-2/x_n$ and is unbounded. The fundamental theorem of calculus version that integrates a derivative therefore needs an explicit integrability hypothesis.

Let $|f|\le M$ on $[0,1]$. Suppose finitely many nonoverlapping closed intervals, of total length at least $1-\delta$, can be chosen for each $\delta >0$, with $f$ Riemann integrable on each. Refine the intervals to make their total Darboux sum gap less than $\epsilon /2$. The remaining length contributes at most $2M\delta$. Taking $\delta <\epsilon /(4M)$ proves global Riemann integrability by the Riemann integrability criterion.

Let $K$ consist of numbers whose decimal digits all lie in a fixed set $D\subseteq \{1,\dots ,8\}$ with $m<10$ digits. The $m^N$ allowed prefixes give closed decimal intervals of length $10^{-N}$ covering $K$, with no endpoints in $K$. A partition of an interval at those endpoints gives an upper Darboux sum at most $(m/10{)}^N$. Every cell contains a terminating decimal outside $K$, so the lower Darboux sum is zero. Thus the indicator function is Riemann integrable with Riemann integral zero. Such sets illustrate how an uncountable set may have an integrable indicator function of zero integral.

Let $f$ be bounded on $[a,b]$ and continuous on $(a,b]$. For any positive error tolerance, isolate $[a,a+\delta ]$. Its contribution to the difference of upper Darboux sums and lower Darboux sums is at most $2\Vert f{\Vert }_{\infty }\delta$. On $[a+\delta ,b]$, uniform continuity supplies a partition of an interval with arbitrarily small remaining oscillation sum. The Riemann integrability criterion then proves integrability, even when the values oscillate without a limit at the endpoint.

For a common interval partition, the oscillation of a function on an interval satisfies ${\mathrm{osc}}_I(f+g)\le {\mathrm{osc}}_{I}f+{\mathrm{osc}}_{I}g$. Refining two good Darboux sums therefore proves integrability of the sum. Lipschitz composition preserves Riemann integrability, so absolute values preserve it too. The identity $\max (f,g)=(f+g+|f-g|)/2$ then proves the assertion for the maximum.

The indicator of the rational numbers is not Riemann integrable on a nondegenerate interval: every subinterval contains both rational and irrational points, so its lower sum is zero and its upper sum is the interval length.

Enumerate the rational points of a compact nondegenerate interval as $q_1,q_2,\dots$. Each singleton indicator function $f_n=1_{\{q_n\}}$ is Riemann integrable with integral zero. Their pointwise supremum is the Dirichlet function, which is not Riemann integrable. Thus even a uniformly bounded countable supremum need not preserve integrability.

Suppose a nonconstant holomorphic map $f:X\to {\mathbb{P}}^1$ from a connected compact Riemann surface has degree of a holomorphic map two and exactly four distinct branch values of a holomorphic map. The valency theorem forces each of their fibres to contain one ramification point with $e_p=2$, a simple ramification point of a holomorphic map. HenceThis determines the genus without recognizing a torus in a drawing.

A concrete realization is the compact Riemann surface obtained by adding the two points at infinity to the even-degree hyperelliptic model given by the algebraic curveProjection to $z$ has degree of a holomorphic map two. At a simple zero $a$ of $P$, $w$ is a local coordinate and $z-a=w^2/P^{\prime }(a)+O(w^4)$, so $e_p=2$. At infinity set $u=1/z$ and $s=w/z^2$: then $s^2=(1-4u^2)(1-u^2)$. There are two points with $u=0$, $s=\pm 1$, each unramified since $u$ is a local coordinate. The four finite roots are therefore all the branch values of a holomorphic map.^[ref]

Choose a triangulation of a surface on the Riemann sphere with these four branch values of a holomorphic map as vertices, combinatorially the boundary of a tetrahedron. Its counts are $V=4,E=6,F=4$. Upstairs, each vertex has one preimage and each open edge and face has two lifts: $V_X=4,E_X=12,F_X=8$, giving Euler characteristic $4-12+8=0$. This is a cell schematic, not a geometric immersion of $X$. The Triangulation proof of the Riemann-Hurwitz formula applies the same counting idea after refining a general triangulation of a surface around the branch values of a holomorphic map.^[ref]

For an integer $d\ge 2$, extend $f(z)=z^d$ to a holomorphic map from the Riemann sphere to itself with $f(\infty )=\infty$. A nonzero finite regular value has $d$ distinct preimages, so the degree of a holomorphic map is $d$. At zero the analytic ramification index is $d$. At infinity, use local coordinates $u=1/z$ upstairs and $v=1/f(z)$ downstairs: the same holomorphic map becomes $v=u^d$, so $e_{\infty }=d$ too. Everywhere else the derivative $d{z}^{d-1}$ is nonzero.

There are two distinct ramification points and two distinct branch values of a holomorphic map, butFor $d=3$, the total ramification of a holomorphic map is four, not two. The local-circle panel shows three nearby preimages converging to the single ramification point. For $d=1$ the holomorphic map is the identity and neither zero nor infinity is ramified.

Count ramification points upstairs in $X$, weighted by $e_p-1$, rather than counting distinct branch values of a holomorphic map downstairs in $Y$. Grouping by fibres givesThe cardinality counts distinct points; the degree of a holomorphic map counts them with their analytic ramification indices. Thus each summand is the number of missing distinct preimages in that fibre.^[ref]

The phrase branch point varies across conventions: to keep the two surfaces distinct, use ramification point for $p\in X$ and branch value of a holomorphic map for $f(p)\in Y$. The existing name branch point of a holomorphic map here denotes the latter. Several ramification points can share one branch value of a holomorphic map.

A Quine atom is a set whose sole member is itself. It violates the Axiom of foundation while respecting the axiom of extensionality. Swapping pairwise distinct old objects $a_n$ with their singletons in a Rieger-Bernays permutation model supplies many Quine atoms, provided those transpositions have disjoint supports. For example, the old ordinals $a_n=\omega +n$ and their singletons are disjoint families.

The dimensionless Richardson constant is the coefficient in the mean-square pair-separation law. Under the simple self-similar diffusivity closure, $g=(A/3{)}^3$. Its universality requires scale locality, adequate scale separation and loss of initial-condition memory; a finite-time fit need not isolate this asymptotic coefficient.

At separations well above the integral scale of turbulence, two fluid velocities can decorrelate spatially. If the relative-velocity autocorrelation $R_{\mathrm{rel}}$ is stationary and integrable, the displacement identity used in Taylor turbulent dispersion gives the displayed long-time linear mean-square growth. With speed $U$ and Lagrangian integral time of order $L/U$, its relative diffusivity is of order $UL$. The characteristic separation grows as $t^{1/2}$, unlike inertial-range Richardson pair dispersion.

For positive initial separation below the Kolmogorov length scale, a phenomenological pair-dispersion model has smooth-flow exponential stretching, inertial-range Richardson pair dispersion, and diffusive large-scale pair dispersion beyond the integral scale of turbulence. A positive Lyapunov exponent is needed for the first regime, scale locality and initial-memory loss for the second, and integrable relative-velocity autocorrelation for the third. The inertial-range crossing time is of order $L^{2/3}{ϵ}^{-1/3}$, one outer eddy turnover time.

For $\mathrm{Ric}+{\nabla }^{2}f=0$, the contracted Bianchi identity and the commutation identity $\Delta \nabla f=\nabla \Delta f+\mathrm{Ric}(\nabla f)$ imply $\nabla R=2\mathrm{Ric}(\nabla f)$. Meanwhile $\nabla |\nabla f{|}^2=-2\mathrm{Ric}(\nabla f)$, so their sum is constant on every connected component.

Three distinct particular solutions $g,h,j$ of a Riccati equation determine every solution by one constant cross-ratio. Indeed, for $f^{\prime }=a{f}^2+bf+c$, differences satisfy $(f-g{)}^{\prime }=(a(f+g)+b)(f-g)$. The logarithmic derivatives cancel in the displayed cross-ratio, so it is constant. Solving for $f$ gives a rational function of the three solutions and $K$, interpreted on the Riemann sphere at poles.

The weak indirect revealed preference is the reflexive closure of the transitive closure of a relation of direct revealed comparisons. Equivalently, it consists of finite chains, including chains of length zero. The diagonal convention is essential if the relation is to be an intersection of complete weak preference relations on all alternatives.