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For $n,A>0$, the one-dimensional porous medium equation $h_t=A(h^n{h}_x{)}_x$ has a volume-preserving similarity solution $h=[c_n(R^2-x^2)/(At){]}_{+}^{1/n}$, where $c_n=n/[2(n+2)]$ and $R\propto t^{1/(n+2)}$. On a reflecting half-line with conserved area $M$, $R=[M(At/c_n{)}^{1/n}/I_n{]}^{n/(n+2)}$, where $I_n=\frac{1}{2}B(\frac{1}{2},1+1/n)$. For a whole symmetric release use half its total area as $M$. The Beta function fixes normalization, while finite-front zero volume flux fixes the edge condition.

The value of an account that continuously reinvests at the short rate $r$, with $B_0=1$. Its reciprocal is the discount factor $D_t=B_t^{-1}$.

A dense additive subgroup of a complete metrizable topological group cannot be proper if it is comeagre. Every translate is comeagre and meets the subgroup, so every translating element is a difference of two subgroup elements. Applied to a topologically complete normed space inside its completion, this proves that its original norm is complete.

As $\delta \uparrow 1$, both active players' effective prizes in every nonfinal subgame tend to the marginal valuation $v_{r+1}$. The two-player complete-information all-pay equilibrium then gives each a winning probability $1/2$. In the final stage, actual valuations determine the asymmetric winning probabilities. Taking this limit from discounted equilibria specifies the continuation selection instead of independently choosing an undiscounted game equilibrium.

A constant surviving buoyancy flux sets the amplitudes of a pure plume: $Q\propto F^{1/3}$ and $M\propto F^{2/3}$. Relative-flux perturbations have the neutral ratio $(\delta Q/Q,\delta M/M,\delta F/F)\propto (1,2,3)$. This is the zero-eigenvalue limit of growing mode of power-law plume similarity; nonzero endpoint stratification can still create cumulative logarithmic flux loss.

For pi-normalized top-hat fluxes, $b=Q/\sqrt{M}$. The pure similarity solution therefore has $b=(6\alpha /5)(z+z_0)$, so the radius grows linearly with slope $6\alpha /5$. The corresponding plume virtual origin is $-z_0$ and a finite source has $z_0=5b_s/(6\alpha )$. This law translates geometric plume-contact criteria into heights.

The six-element dihedral group generated by the displayed rotations already forces every invariant second-rank tensor to have the same form as an axially invariant second-rank tensor. The axial threefold rotation eliminates mixed entries and leaves only a planar scalar plus a planar antisymmetric part; the transverse half-turn eliminates the latter. No smaller finite subgroup suffices: cyclic rotation groups retain an axial antisymmetric tensor, while a four-element noncyclic rotation group retains arbitrary diagonal tensors along its three mutually perpendicular half-turn axes.

In strict axial gauge, the gauge-boson propagator obeys $n^{\mu }{D}_{\mu \nu }(k)=0$ and contains poles at $n\cdot k=0$. Its contraction with conserved external currents removes the gauge-choice terms. Consistent calculations require an axial-gauge pole prescription.

The inverse of $n\cdot \partial$ and the axial-gauge propagator are singular when $n\cdot k=0$. A pole prescription and residual-gauge boundary conditions specify these inverses. They must be compatible throughout a calculation; formal ghost decoupling alone does not specify them.

The defining averaging representation is equivalent to $\Vert Tz-Tw{\Vert }^2\le \Vert z-w{\Vert }^2-(1-\alpha )\Vert (I-T)z-(I-T)w{\Vert }^2/\alpha$. Expanding the norm of the convex combination proves both directions. Substituting a fixed point for $w$ gives Fejér monotonicity and summability of squared residuals.

In finite-dimensional Euclidean space, iterating an averaged operator with a nonempty fixed-point set converges in norm to a fixed point from every start. The averaged-operator inequality proves boundedness and a vanishing residual; compactness produces a fixed cluster point and Fejér monotonicity turns subsequential convergence into convergence of the full sequence. A fixed point must exist.

With nondegenerate white noise, a two-sided AR(1) equation has a unique weakly stationary solution exactly when $|\varphi |\ne 1$. The solution is causal for $|\varphi |<1$ and anticausal for $|\varphi |>1$. At $\varphi =\pm 1$, an n-term noise sum has variance $n{\sigma }^2$, while its difference-of-stationary-values representation has variance at most four times the stationary variance, a contradiction.

For a causal AR(1) plus uncorrelated observation white noise, cross covariances vanish by L2 convergence of the autoregressive noise expansion. Its covariance is ${\sigma }_z^2{\varphi }^{|h|}/(1-{\varphi }^2)+{\sigma }_w^2{1}_{\{h=0\}}$. The additional noise changes only lag zero, attenuating the normalized positive-lag correlations.

A unit root is a zero of an autoregressive polynomial on the unit circle. A zero at $1$ is removed by first differencing. A conjugate pair $e^{\pm i\omega }$ corresponds to the real factor $1-2\cos \omega B+B^2$. Nonzero white-noise excitation at an uncancelled unit root prevents a finite-variance stationary solution.

The group ring of an infinite cyclic group is the Laurent polynomial ring $R=\mathbb{Z}[t,t^{-1}]$, with augmentation $\epsilon (t)=1$. Multiply any element in the kernel by a power of $t$ to obtain a polynomial vanishing at one. The factor theorem makes it divisible by $t-1$. Thus the augmentation ideal is $(t-1)R$. Since $R$ is an integral domain, multiplication by $t-1$ is an injective module map, so this ideal is a free $R$-module of rank one, even though its additive group has infinite rank.

In finite dimensions, if the graph is locally closed at $(\bar{u},\bar{v})$, the Aubin property holds exactly when $D^{\ast }S(\bar{u}\mid \bar{v})(0)=\{0\}$. Thus no nonzero horizontal vector in the limiting normal cone may occur. The exact local Lipschitz modulus is the outer norm of this coderivative.

In hot hydrogen-rich thermochemical equilibrium, much carbon can be bound in carbon monoxide, consuming oxygen that is unavailable for water. At a C/O ratio near or above one, water can be strongly depleted. Cooler methane-dominated chemistry can release more oxygen for water at the same elemental inventory. Pressure, quenching, dissociation and atmospheric photochemistry can modify this temperature-dependent partition.

Nonbiological molecular oxygen can accumulate when photochemistry and planetary redox sinks allow it, for example after water photolysis and hydrogen loss. Ozone produced from that oxygen is not independent proof of a biological source. The stellar spectrum, water inventory, atmospheric escape and other gases constrain these interpretations.

The adjoint bundle is the associated vector bundle for the Adjoint representation of a Lie group on its Lie algebra. The gauge curvature of a principal connection is globally a two-form with values in this bundle. Differences of principal connections and their infinitesimal variations are one-forms with values in the same bundle.

For a Noetherian ring and a proper ideal $I$, every minimal prime $P$ over $I$ is an associated prime of a module $R/I$. The localized quotient has one prime, so its finitely generated maximal ideal is nilpotent and its socle is nonzero. An element with annihilator $P{R}_P$ can be lifted to the quotient. Clearing denominators for a finite generating set of $P$ gives a nonzero element with annihilator exactly $P$.