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Write $r_s=2GM/c^2$ and $f=1-r_s/r$. The Schwarzschild tortoise coordinate satisfies $d{r}_{\ast }/dr=1/f$ and can be chosen as $r_{\ast }=r+r_s\ln |r/r_s-1|$. Define the advanced time $v=t+r_{\ast }/c$. Substituting $dt=dv-dr/(cf)$ into the Schwarzschild metric gives the ingoing Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates formThe coefficients are regular at $r=r_s$ and the radial-block determinant is $-c^2$, so the exterior Schwarzschild-time divergence is a coordinate singularity at the future event horizon. The physical curvature singularity at $r=0$ remains.

The two families of radial null trajectories in ingoing Eddington-Finkelstein coordinates obeyOutside the event horizon, the outgoing family increases $r$; at the horizon it generates the horizon itself; inside, even the outgoing future-directed family decreases $r$. An infaller crosses the future horizon at finite $v$ and finite proper time. The chart makes this causal geometry visible without mistaking Schwarzschild coordinate time for the infaller's clock.

Use the $+---$ metric signature and abbreviate $f(r)=1-2\mu /r$, with $\mu =GM/c^2$ a length. Dots initially mean differentiation with respect to an affine parameter $\lambda$. The geodesic Lagrangian in the equatorial plane isThe planarity of geodesics in spherical symmetry permits this plane to be chosen. More explicitly, the full angular Euler-Lagrange equation is $\ddot{\theta }+2\dot{r}\dot{\theta }/r-\sin \theta \cos \theta {\dot{\varphi }}^2=0$, so initial data $\theta =\pi /2$, $\dot{\theta }=0$ preserve it.

Both $t$ and $\varphi$ are cyclic coordinates. Their Euler-Lagrange equations give conserved conjugate momenta $p_t=c^{2}f\dot{t}$ and $p_{\varphi }=-r^2\dot{\varphi }$. Defining constants $k,h$ therefore givesThe corresponding second-order geodesic equations areand variation of $r$ givesThe geodesic Lagrangian has no explicit $\lambda$ dependence. Its conserved Lagrangian energy function is ${\dot{x}}^{\alpha }\partial \mathcal{L}/\partial {\dot{x}}^{\alpha }-\mathcal{L}=\mathcal{L}$, since it is quadratic in the tangent components. Thus twice this function is a constant:This is the constant squared tangent norm of an affinely parametrized geodesic.

For a massive particle choose $\lambda =\tau$, its proper time, and obtain $\kappa =c^2$. For a photon, the tangent is null and $\kappa =0$. A general rescaling of a massive particle's affine parameter rescales a positive $\kappa$; the numerical value $c^2$ requires the proper time choice. With that choice, $h=L_z/m$ is signed specific angular momentum, of units ${\mathrm{m}}^2{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$, and $k=E/(m{c}^2)$ is dimensionless conserved specific Killing energy. The time coordinate is normalized to proper time at infinity, so this $E$ is the particle's conserved energy referred to infinity. A photon's constants scale with the normalization of its null tangent; it has no rest frame or proper time parametrization.

Substitution of $\dot{t}=k/f$ and $\dot{\varphi }=h/r^2$ into the norm gives the general radial first integralFor a massive particle this becomesAdopting the usual half-normalization for the effective potential for timelike Schwarzschild geodesics, defineAll terms have units ${\mathrm{m}}^2{\mathrm{s}}^{-2}$, or energy per unit mass. The first two terms are the Newtonian gravitational and centrifugal contributions; the last is the relativistic correction.

A circular orbit requires both $\dot{r}=0$ and $V_{\mathrm{eff}}^{\prime }(R)=0$. Differentiating at fixed $h$ givesThe radial first integral also givesFor the future-directed circular orbit at $R=4\mu$, these constants are $|h|=4\mu c$, $k=1$, and $f=1/2$. ThereforeSince Schwarzschild time agrees with the clock time of a static observer at infinity, the intended infinity-referred tangential orbital speed isThis uses the circumferential areal radius $R$ with the clock at infinity; it is not a local measurement made at the orbit. A local static observer's clock instead has $d{\tau }_{\mathrm{stat}}=\sqrt{f}dt$ and measures $v_{\mathrm{local}}=v_{\infty }/\sqrt{f}=\boxed{c/\sqrt{2}}$. These two operationally different speeds explain the significance of the phrase “at infinity”.

The effective-potential stability of a circular orbit follows fromConsequently the $R=4\mu$ orbit exists but is unstable to radial perturbations. The original plot below shows its position at a maximum, for $h=4\mu c$.

For a weak-field elliptic orbit, the relativistic correction makes the direction of closest approach advance after each radial cycle. The derivations under i and ii below giveper orbit to first order, where $a_{\mathrm{orb}}$ is the semi-major axis and $e$ the orbital eccentricity. For Mercury, the additional Schwarzschild perihelion precession is approximately 43 arcseconds per century, over and above the much larger Newtonian precession produced primarily by other planets. It is the unexplained residual after those effects have been included that provides the classic quantitative test of general relativity; one should not identify the whole observed precession with this relativistic correction.^[ref]

The labels i and ii in the original paper introduce optional orbit-equation aids, rather than separate mandatory subquestions. They are retained here for derivations of both aids and of the perihelion result.

For $d{s}^2=Ad{t}^2-d{r}^2/A-r^{2}d{\Omega }^2$, $A=1-2GM/r-\Lambda r^2/3$, and $c=1$, a radial timelike geodesic has ${\dot{r}}^2=k^2-A$. The radial geodesic equation gives $\ddot{r}=-A^{\prime }/2=-GM/r^2+\Lambda r/3$, including at a turning point. This is a second derivative of the areal radius with respect to proper time; the geodesic's four-acceleration still vanishes. In the slow-motion weak-field limit, restoring units gives $d^{2}r/d{t}^2=-GM/r^2+\Lambda c^{2}r/3$.

In static coordinates on anti-de Sitter spacetime with curvature radius $L$ and $c=1$, put $f=1+r^2/L^2$. The conserved energy per unit rest mass is $E=fdt/d\tau$. Timelike normalization for a radial geodesic gives $(dr/d\tau {)}^2=E^2-1-r^2/L^2$, hence $d^{2}r/d{\tau }^2=-r/L^2$. An outward launch from the origin at proper time ${\tau }_0$ gives the displayed harmonic solution until its first return, after proper time $\pi L$, independently of $E>1$. Beyond that return, use a signed diameter coordinate or change the radial direction to keep the areal radius nonnegative. This is a coordinate realization of Anti-de Sitter timelike geodesic refocusing.