Past exam of the short options paper shared by Parts A and B of the physics course of the University of Oxford / 2019 / S2 / 2

A thin spherical shell has outward pressure force $-4\pi r^2(dP/dr)dr$ and inward gravitational force $GM(r)4\pi r^2\rho (r)dr/r^2$. Hydrostatic equilibrium requiresA uniform-density solar model gives $M(r)=M_{\odot }(r/R_{\odot }{)}^3$, $\bar{\rho }=3M_{\odot }/(4\pi R_{\odot }^3)$, and after integration from $R_{\odot }$ to zero,Thus the appropriate orders of magnitude are $10^{14}$–$10^{16}\mathrm{Pa}$ and $10^7\mathrm{K}$. The uniform-density approximation underestimates the actual central pressure because the Sun is centrally concentrated. Radiation pressure is neglected in applying the ideal gas law.

A free-fall timescale estimate follows from $R/t^2\sim GM/R^2$:Falling to a central point mass gives the more precise factor $\pi /(2\sqrt{2})$, or $1.77\times 10^3\mathrm{s}$; a distributed star changes an order-one coefficient. For any spherical mass distribution with radius $R$,The inequality is strict for an extended star; equality is approached by a thin shell at $R$. For an monatomic gas the virial theorem is $2U+\Omega =0$, so half the gravitational potential energy released by contraction heats the star and half can be radiated. The Kelvin-Helmholtz cooling time is therefore of orderA uniform-density model gives $3G{M}^2/(10RL)\simeq 9.4\times 10^6\mathrm{yr}$. The given bound fixes a scale, rather than an exact contraction history; both estimates are far shorter than the Sun's main-sequence lifetime.

The right panel of the figure in solution has luminosity increasing upwards and effective temperature decreasing to the right. An old globular cluster contains a low-mass main sequence, a main-sequence turnoff, subgiants, a red giant branch, a horizontal branch, an Asymptotic giant branch and a faint hot white dwarf sequence. Its high-mass main sequence is absent because those stars have evolved.

If a fraction $f_c=0.1$ of the star participates in hydrogen burning, with initial hydrogen mass fraction $X=0.7$, the available nuclear binding energy is $0.007f_{c}XM{c}^2$. Assuming a roughly constant luminosity and coeval stars,Taking the quoted core fraction as hydrogen fuel itself, $f_{c}X=0.1$, gives $1.98\times 10^{10}\mathrm{yr}$. Stating the fuel convention matters: burning the whole stellar mass overestimates the age by about an order of magnitude. Evolving luminosity and detailed stellar structure are needed for an accurate age.