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By William Henry Bragg. Philosophical Transactions A 215, 253–274 (1915). Lecture delivered 18 March; manuscript received 7 April 1915.

William Lawrence Bragg introduced the plane interpretation; his father William Henry Bragg built the X-ray spectrometer. Their joint 1913 paper, The Reflection of X-rays by Crystals, reports the experiment. ^{[ref] [ref]}

An X-ray tube supplied radiation through lead slits to a crystal mounted with its cleavage face through the rotation axis. A rotating ionization chamber replaced a spectrometer telescope; electric current measured the scattered signal, and a circular scale supplied angular readings. They first scanned the chamber at fixed crystal orientation, then swept crystal and chamber together to follow the reflection. ^[ref]

Changing chamber gas checked detector dependence; readings on opposite sides checked face-setting errors. Repeated peaks with sines of half-deflections in integer ratios, together with matching absorption coefficients, distinguished repeated diffraction orders of the same wavelength from different radiation components. Comparing crystal faces constrained interplanar spacings. Their limits included slit broadening, face alignment and incomplete interception at glancing incidence; assigning absolute wavelengths still required a structural choice for $d$. ^[ref]

William Lawrence Bragg's 1913 structure paper connects a slit-selected beam, an oriented crystal and an ionization chamber to strength-versus-angle curves. Repeated sine ratios and matching absorption coefficients identify common radiation. Narrower slits resolve blended lines. Absolute wavelengths remain undetermined there; intercrystal comparisons first give relative scales. The Bragg crystal reflection experiment of 1913 covers the alignment controls.^[ref]

William Henry Bragg's 1915 Bakerian lecture, X-rays and Crystal Structure, separates the geometric and intensity arguments. Its Figure 9 compares reflection positions and strengths from three sodium chloride orientations; odd and even diffraction orders differ in strength along one orientation. The interpretation uses alternating scattering layers. Later, the calcite example identifies an internal oxygen coordinate that symmetry alone cannot fix. Improved wave intensity measurements revise a previously rough estimate. Thus a lattice assignment can precede determination of positions inside the unit cell; intensity interpretation also has experimental and theoretical limits. This is the father's 1915 lecture, distinct from the joint 1913 reflection paper.^[ref]

Awarded jointly to William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg for methods of determining crystal structures using X-rays. Bragg's law connects measured angles to lattice-plane spacings.^[ref]

By William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg. Published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A 88(605), 428–438, 1 July 1913. Received 7 April and read 17 April 1913.

DOI: doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1913.0040

Institutional scan: chair.itp.ac.ru/biblio/papers/ClassicPapersSeminar/Bragg1913a.pdf

Cited passages: pp. 428–430, apparatus and alignment check; pp. 435–438, repeated orders, absorption comparison and structural inference.

By William Lawrence Bragg, credited as W. L. Bragg. Published in Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series A 89, 248–277 (1913). The first page records receipt on 21 June and reading on 26 June 1913. The communication credit to William Henry Bragg is distinct from authorship.

DOI: doi.org/10.1098/rspa.1913.0083

Inspected scan: scispace.com/pdf/the-structure-of-some-crystals-as-indicated-by-their-1ugl7pojiz.pdf

Cited passages: p. 248, authorship and communication credits; pp. 262–263, Figures 8–9 and Tables VII–IX, sodium chloride sections, orientations, thickness comparison and spot intensities; pp. 264–265, Figure 10, interpenetrating face-centered arrays and the remaining atomic-assignment uncertainty. The historical scattering-weight interpretation is not modern X-ray scattering theory.

Institutional museum record from the Royal Institution, crediting William Henry Bragg with designing and making the spectrometer. The object date, 1912, is distinct from the undated web record.

Collection record: www.rigb.org/explore-science/explore/collection/william-braggs-spectrometer

William Henry Bragg developed experimental methods that turned crystal diffraction into X-ray spectroscopy. A crystal selects reflected radiation at particular angles, while a movable detector measures the reflected intensity. Relating these peaks to lattice-plane spacing connects an instrument reading with the wavelength of the incident radiation. His joint work with Lawrence Bragg established a quantitative relation between crystal geometry and X-ray reflection, helping make diffraction a practical probe of both radiation and structure.^[ref]

A physicist who worked on crystal scattering and Bragg's law.

Institutional biography: www.rigb.org/explore-science/explore/person/william-henry-bragg-1862-1942

X-ray scattering is the redirection of X-rays through interaction with matter. The angular distribution and energy of the outgoing radiation carry information about the material. In elastic scattering the photon energy is unchanged; in inelastic scattering energy is exchanged. X-ray diffraction concerns organized interference of scattered waves, rather than a separate kind of radiation.

The scattering vector $\mathbf{q}={\mathbf{k}}_{\mathrm{out}}-{\mathbf{k}}_{\mathrm{in}}$ compares outgoing and incoming wave vectors. Consider two identical scatterers separated by $\mathbf{d}$, each with real elastic scattering amplitude $f$, and neglect multiple scattering. Their amplitude sum and intensity areTwo atoms can therefore scatter strongly in one direction and cancel in another. The measured pattern depends on arrangement, not merely on the number of atoms. For repeating lattice planes in a crystal, constructive interference gives Bragg's law $2d\sin \theta =n\lambda$.^[ref]

The1913 experiment by William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg made the angular pattern measurable with a rotating crystal and an ionization chamber in place of a spectrometer telescope. Slits selected a narrow incoming beam; the detector current was measured as its angle changed. Peaks and repeated orders constrained crystal structure and X-ray wavelengths, linking an electrical measurement to atomic-scale geometry.^[ref]