Geodynamics of terrestrial exoplanets refers to the study of the internal processes and physical properties of rocky planets outside our solar system (the so-called "terrestrial" exoplanets), as well as how these processes shape their geological features and landscapes.

Geophysical global cooling refers to a significant and sustained decrease in the Earth's average surface temperature on a global scale. This phenomenon can occur due to various natural and anthropogenic (human-caused) factors. Historically, the Earth has experienced periods of global cooling, often associated with significant climatic events, including ice ages, volcanic eruptions, and changes in solar radiation.

The geothermal gradient refers to the rate at which temperature increases with depth below the Earth's surface. Typically, the temperature rises approximately 25 to 30 degrees Celsius for every kilometer of depth in the Earth's crust, although this rate can vary widely depending on geological conditions.

Isostasy is a geological concept that describes the state of gravitational equilibrium between the Earth's lithosphere (the rigid outer layer of the Earth) and the underlying asthenosphere (a semi-fluid layer of the upper mantle). According to the principle of isostasy, the Earth's crust "floats" on the denser, more fluid mantle beneath it, much like an iceberg floats in water.

Isostatic depression, also known as isostatic rebound or isostatic adjustment, refers to the process by which the Earth's crust responds to changes in load or pressure. This phenomenon is primarily associated with the removal or addition of large ice sheets, such as during glacial and interglacial periods. When a large mass, like an ice sheet, is present over a region, it exerts considerable pressure on the Earth's crust, causing it to deform and sink, or depress.

A Love number is a parameter used in geophysics and planetary science to describe the response of a celestial body's shape to gravitational forces, particularly in the context of tides. The concept is named after A.E.H. Love, who developed the mathematical theory of elasticity that describes how solid objects deform under external forces.

Mantle convection is the process by which heat from the Earth's interior causes the movement of the semi-fluid mantle layer, which lies between the Earth's crust and the outer core. This process is a key mechanism in plate tectonics, influencing the movement of tectonic plates on the Earth's surface. Here’s how mantle convection works: 1. **Heat Production**: The Earth's interior generates heat through radioactive decay and residual heat from the planet’s formation.

A mantle plume is an upwelling of hot mantle material from deep within the Earth's mantle, typically originating from a boundary layer between the mantle and core or from the lower mantle. These plumes are thought to be caused by thermal convection within the Earth, where hot, less dense material rises while cooler, denser material sinks.

Plate tectonics is a scientific theory that explains the large-scale movement of Earth's lithosphere, which is divided into several tectonic plates. These plates float on the semi-fluid asthenosphere beneath them, and their interactions shape the Earth's surface, leading to various geological phenomena. Key concepts of plate tectonics include: 1. **Lithosphere and Asthenosphere**: The lithosphere is the rigid outer layer of the Earth, comprising the crust and the uppermost mantle.

Plume tectonics is a theoretical framework in geology that seeks to explain the movement of tectonic plates and the formation of geological features, particularly in relation to the role of mantle plumes. A mantle plume is a localized column of hot, upwelling mantle material that can lead to the formation of volcanic activity, rifting, and other geological processes as it rises towards the Earth's lithosphere.

Post-glacial rebound, also known as isostatic rebound or glacial isostatic adjustment, refers to the geological process that occurs when the Earth's crust, which was previously depressed by the weight of ice sheets during the last Ice Age, begins to rise once the ice has melted. As glaciers and ice sheets retreat, the immense pressure they exert on the Earth's crust is removed, allowing the crust to gradually lift and adjust to its new load conditions.

Slab pull is a geological process that describes the movement of tectonic plates, particularly the oceanic lithosphere, as it subducts into the Earth's mantle. This phenomenon occurs at convergent plate boundaries, where one tectonic plate is forced under another. As the denser oceanic plate sinks into the mantle, it pulls the rest of the plate along with it, creating a pulling force. This mechanism is significant in explaining the dynamics of plate tectonics.

Thermal subsidence refers to the process by which the Earth's surface sinks or lowers due to cooling and contraction of the underlying materials, commonly occurring in tectonic settings. This geological phenomenon can occur in various contexts, such as: 1. **Ocean Basins**: When new oceanic crust forms at mid-ocean ridges, it is initially hot and occupies a larger volume than when it cools and solidifies.

C-squares could refer to several concepts, depending on the context. However, the most recognized use of "C-squares" pertains to programming and data visualization in the context of the C-squares algorithm, which is a method used in geographical information systems (GIS) for creating and analyzing data represented in a grid or square format.

A Discrete Global Grid (DGG) is a mathematical and conceptual framework used to represent geographic data in a regular, grid-like manner across the Earth's surface. Unlike traditional geographic coordinate systems based on latitude and longitude, which can suffer from issues like varying resolution or distortion, DGGs provide a way to partition the globe into a uniform tiling of cells or grid elements.

Geohash is a system for encoding geographic coordinates (latitude and longitude) into a compact string of characters. It was invented by Gustavo Niemeyer in 2008 and is often used in geospatial applications to simplify location-based data handling and storage. ### How it Works: 1. **Encoding**: A geographic location is represented by dividing the Earth into a grid of cells. Each cell is given a unique identifier (the "Geohash") made up of a string of letters and numbers.

Geomagnetic latitude is a coordinate used in geomagnetism to indicate the position of a point on the Earth's surface in relation to the geomagnetic poles. Unlike geographic latitude, which is based on the Earth's rotational axis, geomagnetic latitude is based on the Earth's magnetic field. The geomagnetic latitude is defined as the angle between a point on the Earth's surface and the geomagnetic equator, measured from the center of the Earth.

The Global Area Reference System (GARS) is a geospatial framework used for referencing and organizing geographic areas on a global scale. It provides a systematic way to divide the Earth's surface into a grid of cells, which can be referenced by their coordinates. GARS is particularly useful in various fields such as military operations, disaster management, environmental monitoring, and resource allocation, enabling users to share and analyze spatial data more effectively.

The Global Navigation Grid Code (GNGC) is not a widely recognized term as of my last update in October 2023. However, it may refer to a system or code used for global navigation, possibly in the context of geographic information systems (GIS), satellite navigation, or related fields. In these areas, grid codes can be essential for identifying specific locations on Earth, coordinating movement, or organizing spatial data.

Local tangent plane coordinates (often abbreviated as LTP coordinates) are a system of coordinates used in the study of differential geometry and in applications such as robotics, computer graphics, and geodesy. They provide a way to describe the local geometry of a surface or a manifold in a neighborhood of a point by using a flat, two-dimensional plane that is tangent to the surface at that point.