For a shallow V-channel with floor $z=\alpha |y|$, $0<\alpha \ll 1$, let the free surface be $z=h(x,t)$. Hydrostatic pressure gives $p_x=\rho g{h}_x$. A vertical strip has thickness $H_y=h-\alpha |y|$ and, with no slip below and zero shear above, flux $-\rho g{H}_y^3{h}_x/(3\mu )$. Integrating across $|y|<h/\alpha$ givesConservation of volume is $(h^2{)}_t=C(h^4{h}_x{)}_x$, $C=\rho g/(6\mu )$. Here $\alpha$ is the wall slope to the horizontal, not the opening half-angle measured from the vertical in a general V-section. Vertical shear dominates transverse shear by the shallow-slope approximation.

Combinatory logic describes computation by application and fixed combinator constants, eliminating bound variables through bracket abstraction. Its intensional weak reduction does not identify every pair of terms that becomes beta-equivalent after translation into lambda calculus.

Eta conversion expresses extensionality for a lambda abstraction whose fresh argument is only passed to a function. The side condition prevents removal of a genuine dependency. In a categorical model with $D\cong D^D$, the inverse laws for currying and evaluation validate this conversion as well as beta reduction.

In a homogeneous ambient fluid, the displayed nonsteady power-law ansatz solves the unsteady top-hat line-plume balances for $\tau =t+t_{\ast }>0$. It gives $Q=R\alpha z^2/(3\tau )$, $M=2R\alpha z^3/(9{\tau }^2)$ and $F=2R\alpha z^3/(9{\tau }^3)$. The solution is singular at zero age and carries zero source flux at its unshifted ideal origin. It describes a separable branch away from a source; a finite-width boundary, virtual-origin shift or matching region is needed to supply nonzero physical source flux. It is distinct from the steady constant-flux line plume, whose top-hat half-width grows as $\alpha z$.

For an unramified extension $L/K$ of non-Archimedean local fields and any finite extension $M/K$, reduction is a bijection between $K$-field homomorphisms $L\to M$ and $k_K$-field homomorphisms $k_L\to k_M$. Choose an integral generator with separable irreducible reduction. Each specified residue image lifts uniquely to a root in $M$ by Hensel lemma. Conversely a $K$-embedding preserves the unique extended valuation and therefore induces the residue embedding. The same argument applies when $M$ is any non-Archimedean local extension with the given compatible embedding of $K$.

For non-Archimedean local fields, let $L/K$ be an unramified extension of degree $f$, and let $E/K$ be finite. The degree-$f$ unramified extension of $E$ has a residue field containing the degree-$f$ residue extension of $K$. Lift an integral residue generator of $L$ into that field by Hensel lemma. This embeds $L$ into an unramified extension of $E$, so $LE/E$ is an unramified subextension. Applying this argument to each completion of a number field at a prime ideal proves the finite-prime assertion for number fields, even when $E/K$ is ramified.

The local principal series of GL2 induces a smooth linear character of its diagonal torus, inflated to its upper-triangular subgroup. Its unnormalized Jacquet module has two one-dimensional composition factors, $\chi$ and ${\chi }^w{\delta }^{-1}$, where $\delta (\mathrm{diag}(a,d))=|d/a|$. When these coincide, the module is a nonsplit self-extension, so one must not count the linear character twice as two independent quotients.

Evaluation of an intertwiner at the identity gives a $B$-equivariant functional. Conversely a functional $\ell$ gives $A(v)(g)=\ell (\pi (g)v)$, which has the required covariance and is fixed on the right by any compact-open subgroup fixing $v$. These inverse constructions prove the displayed adjunction. If $\xi$ is trivial on the unipotent radical, it is equivalent to a character-valued functional on the Jacquet module.

Given a compact parameter space $X$ and a family $f_x:U\to U\prime$ of linear isometries, a subordinate flag for a family of linear isometries consists of nested cofinal source and target subspaces $V_i,W_i$ with $f_x(V_i)\subset W_i$ for every $x$. After enlarging the target stages, compactness makes this possible for every finite source stage. It permits simultaneous finite-dimensional Thom space constructions.

Under the scaling hypothesis for critical phenomena, $F_s=A_f|a_{t}t{|}^{D/y_t}{\Phi }_{\pm }(0)$ at zero field. The common free-energy and thermal metric factors cancel from $A_{+}/A_{-}$, leaving a property of the universality class. This concerns the singular part at equal $|t|$, not the ratio of full free energies including arbitrary analytic identity terms. Matching constants in ${\Phi }_{\pm }$ belong to the same scaling solution and cannot be assigned independently.

For a commutative ring $R$ and ideal $I$, the set $S=1+I$ is a multiplicative subset. For $i\in I$ and $s,t\in S$, the numerator $st-ri$ of $1-(r/t)(i/s)$ again lies in $S$. Thus this difference is a unit in the localization of a ring. The unit criterion for the Jacobson radical proves $S^{-1}I\subseteq J(S^{-1}R)$. This requires no Noetherian hypothesis.

The universal cover of a connected closed manifold of dimension three with finite fundamental group is a closed simply connected three-manifold. It is orientable, since its orientation character has trivial domain. Its first integral homology vanishes, and the universal coefficient theorem for cohomology then gives $H^1=0$. Integral Poincare duality gives $H_2=H^1=0$, while $H_0$ and $H_3$ are $\mathbb{Z}$. Thus it is an integral homology sphere. This proof does not require classifying simply connected three-manifolds.

Every unitary matrix has a unique decomposition $U=A+iB$ into Hermitian matrices. The formulas follow by adding and subtracting $U$ and its conjugate transpose. Expanding $U^{†}U=U{U}^{†}=I$ gives $A^2+B^2+i(AB-BA)=I$ and $A^2+B^2-i(AB-BA)=I$. Therefore the parts commute and $A^2+B^2=I$.

The quotient identifies unitary operators differing by a scalar phase. A continuous projective unitary representation takes values in this quotient, with the quotient of the strong operator topology. A local continuous section fixes the phase by requiring a chosen nonzero matrix coefficient to be positive real.

For an orthogonal projection $P$ on a complex Hilbert space, this is the group of unitary operators whose off-diagonal blocks relative to $PH\oplus (I-P)H$ are Hilbert-Schmidt operators. Its usual topology combines strong operator convergence with Hilbert-Schmidt convergence of $[P,u]$. It is the group implementable in the corresponding polarized fermionic Fock space.

The smooth map $F(A)=A^{\ast }A$ from complex matrices, regarded as a real vector space, to Hermitian matrices has derivative $D{F}_A(K)=A^{\ast }K+K^{\ast }A$. At a unitary $A$, taking $K=AH/2$ gives any prescribed Hermitian $H$. Thus $I$ is a regular value and $F^{-1}(I)=U(n)$ is a smooth manifold of real dimension $n^2$.

// Target: algebra.bigb

The last-column map has fibre the subgroup fixing the last standard unit vector. Unitary completion gives surjectivity, and compactness gives the quotient homeomorphism. Projecting the other standard vectors onto the orthogonal complement of a nearby unit vector and applying Gram-Schmidt gives a local section, so the projection is a fiber bundle. The bundle $U(n)\to U(n+1)\to S^{2n+1}$ then gives ${\pi }_{i}U(n)\cong {\pi }_{i}U(n+1)$ for $i\le 2n-1$ because both adjacent sphere homotopy groups vanish.

A finite-dimensional complex representation of a compact group is a direct sum of irreducible representations. Average a positive Hermitian inner product over normalized Haar measure. The orthogonal complement of an invariant subspace is then invariant, so induction on dimension gives the decomposition. The same argument works for finite-dimensional real representations with a positive real inner product.

For a normalized even unimodal interval map with $f(0)=1$ and $a=f(1)\in (-1,0)$, defineThis returns the second iterate near the critical point to the original spatial and height normalization. Then $\mathcal{T}(f)(0)=f(1)/a=1$. A restrictive-interval condition is also needed for the composition to remain unimodal and map $[-1,1]$ into itself; normalization alone is not sufficient.

// Target: dynamical-systems.bigb

Gravity darkening is the variation of surface brightness and effective temperature with effective gravity over a rotating or tidally distorted star. Lower equatorial gravity generally corresponds to cooler equatorial regions. The radiative gravity-darkening law applies to the idealized uniformly rotating, radiatively transporting, composition-uniform case; its exponent is not universal for every stellar envelope.