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Industrial computed tomography (ICT) is a non-destructive testing (NDT) technique that utilizes X-rays or gamma rays to create detailed 3D images of the internal structures of an object. This technology is widely used in various industries, including manufacturing, aerospace, automotive, and medical devices, to inspect, analyze, and evaluate the integrity of components and materials without causing any damage to them.

Johnson's rule is a scheduling algorithm used to minimize the makespan (the total time required to complete a set of jobs) in a flow shop environment where there are two machines. It helps in determining the optimal order of jobs to be processed on these machines. The basic steps of Johnson's rule are as follows: 1. **List all jobs**: Create a list of all jobs along with their processing times on the two machines (Machine 1 and Machine 2).

Accessible Mexico City Metro stations refer to those stations that have been equipped with facilities and features to accommodate individuals with disabilities or mobility challenges. This initiative has been part of Mexico City's broader efforts to improve public transportation accessibility. Key features of accessible stations typically include: 1. **Elevators and Ramps**: To enable easy access between different levels of the station, especially for wheelchair users or individuals with limited mobility.

Garth Gibson is a notable figure in the field of computer science, particularly recognized for his contributions to computer systems and networking. He is known for his work on various topics, including storage systems and file systems. One of his most significant contributions is in the development of the Andrew File System (AFS), which has had a substantial impact on distributed file systems.

Materials degradation refers to the process by which materials lose their properties and functionality over time due to various environmental, mechanical, or chemical factors. This deterioration can affect the material's strength, appearance, and performance, making it less suitable for its intended application. There are several types of materials degradation, including: 1. **Chemical Degradation**: This involves reactions with environmental agents, such as oxidation, hydrolysis, or corrosion, that may alter the chemical composition of the material.

Metallurgy is the science and technology of metals and their alloys. It encompasses the processes of extraction, refining, forming, and alloying of metals, as well as the study of their physical and chemical properties. Metallurgy is generally divided into two main branches: 1. **Extractive Metallurgy**: This branch deals with the extraction of metals from their ores and the refining process.

Nanotechnology is the science and engineering of manipulating matter at the nanoscale, typically defined as involving structures ranging from 1 to 100 nanometers (nm) in size. To put this in perspective, a nanometer is one-billionth of a meter, which is about 100,000 times smaller than the diameter of a human hair. Nanotechnology involves the study, design, and application of materials and devices at this incredibly small scale, where unique physical and chemical properties often emerge.

Porous media, often referred to as porous materials or porous media, are materials that contain pores (voids or spaces) within their structure. These pores can occupy a significant fraction of the volume of the material, allowing fluids (gases or liquids) to flow through them. Porous media can be found in various forms and applications, ranging from natural materials to engineered structures.

Radiation effects refer to the various biological, chemical, and physical impacts that ionizing radiation can have on living organisms and materials. Ionizing radiation includes particles (like alpha and beta particles) and electromagnetic waves (such as gamma rays and X-rays), which have enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, thereby creating ions. ### Biological Effects 1. **Cellular Damage**: Ionizing radiation can cause direct damage to DNA and other vital cellular components.

Crystal engineering is a multidisciplinary field that focuses on the design and construction of molecular crystals with specific properties and functions. It combines principles from chemistry, materials science, solid-state physics, and crystallography to manipulate and control the arrangement of molecules within the solid state. Key aspects of crystal engineering include: 1. **Molecular Design**: Designing molecules that can self-assemble into desired crystalline structures.

Crystal growth is the process through which a solid crystalline structure forms from a solution, melt, or vapor. This process is significant in various fields, including materials science, chemistry, geology, and biology, as it affects the properties and behaviors of materials. **Key aspects of crystal growth include:** 1. **Nucleation:** This is the initial stage where small clusters of molecules or atoms come together to form a stable nucleus.

Mathematics of Operations Research (OR) is a branch of applied mathematics that deals with the application of mathematical methods and statistical techniques to solve problems involving the allocation of resources, optimizing processes, and decision-making. Operations Research often involves the use of mathematical models, statistical analysis, and optimization algorithms to evaluate complex systems and improve operational efficiency. Here are some key components and methodologies involved in Operations Research: 1. **Mathematical Modeling**: Formulating real-world problems in mathematical terms.

SEMAT stands for Software Engineering Method and Theory. It is an initiative aimed at improving the software engineering discipline by establishing a solid foundation grounded in theory and universal principles. The SEMAT initiative focuses on creating a common language and framework for software engineering practices, allowing teams and organizations to better understand and communicate about their processes, techniques, and practices.

Gary T. Leavens is a prominent computer scientist known for his work in the fields of software engineering, programming languages, and formal methods. He has made significant contributions, particularly in the areas of specification and verification of software systems, as well as research on programming language design and semantics. Leavens is also known for his work on the Java Modeling Language (JML), which is used for specifying the behavior of Java classes and methods.

Double layer forces refer to the interactions between charged surfaces in a fluid, typically an electrolyte solution. These forces are fundamental in colloid and interface science and are important in various fields such as biology, materials science, and electrochemistry. The concept of double layer forces is based on the formation of an electric double layer (EDL) at the interface between a charged surface and an electrolyte solution.

Dynamic Mechanical Analysis (DMA) is a technique used to measure the mechanical properties of materials as they undergo deformation under oscillating loads. This analytical method provides critical information on viscoelastic properties—how materials respond to mechanical stress, including both their elastic and viscous behavior.

Dynamical heterogeneity is a concept primarily used in the field of statistical physics, condensed matter physics, and materials science to describe the varying dynamics of particles within a system. This phenomenon is particularly relevant in the study of glassy systems, supercooled liquids, and critical phenomena. In simple terms, dynamical heterogeneity refers to spatial and temporal variations in the movement or relaxation times of particles.

An elastomer is a type of polymer that has elastic properties, meaning it can stretch and return to its original shape without permanent deformation. These materials are characterized by their ability to undergo significant elastic deformation when a force is applied and then recover quickly once the force is removed. This makes elastomers particularly useful in a wide range of applications where flexibility and resilience are important.

Electroplasticity is a phenomenon in which the mechanical properties of materials, particularly metals, are altered by the application of an electric current during deformation processes. This effect can lead to a reduction in yield strength and an increase in ductility, making it easier to shape materials under low-temperature conditions. The primary mechanism behind electroplasticity involves the interaction between the electric field and the motion of dislocations (defects in the crystal structure of materials) within the metal.

Entropic force is a type of emergent force that arises from the tendency of a system to maximize its entropy, or disorder. In statistical mechanics, entropy is a measure of the number of microscopic configurations that correspond to a thermodynamic system's macroscopic state. Entropic forces are not fundamental forces like gravity or electromagnetism; instead, they emerge from the statistical behavior of particles in a system due to microscopic interactions.