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Order $m$ p-values and reject the first $r$ hypotheses, where $r=\max \{j:p_{(j)}\le \alpha /(m-j+1)\}$, with $r=0$ for an empty set. Under independent valid true-null p-values, this step-up procedure controls the familywise error rate. One proof embeds its rejections in the closed testing procedure with Simes tests: every intersection containing a rejected hypothesis passes its local Simes test, so closed-testing control of the familywise error rate applies.

For two centered predictors with squared norms $n$ and correlation coefficient $\rho$, the ordinary least squares estimate of either partial slope has variance ${\sigma }^2/[n(1-{\rho }^2)]$. Compared with the same predictor alone and the same error variance, the inflation factor is $1/(1-{\rho }^2)$. The eigenvalues of the slope Gram matrix are $n(1+\rho )$ and $n(1-\rho )$.

A fiber-fed spectrograph places optical fibers on selected targets and reformats their output into a common entrance slit. Dedicated sky fibers sample sky brightness. Fiber coupling, transmission, and output beam spreading affect throughput and resolution.

A multi-slit spectrograph puts separate slits at target positions in the focal plane. Each slit transmits the target plus nearby sky; dispersion places its spatially resolved optical spectrum on the detector.

InSIDE stands for instrument strength independent of direct effect. It requires the genetic associations with the exposure to be independent of the direct, pleiotropic effects of those genetic variants on the outcome. It is a key identifying assumption for MR-Egger regression.

If $X$ has a well-founded extensional inherited membership relation and $T\subseteq X$ is a transitive set, its Mostowski collapse theorem map $\pi$ fixes every member of $T$. The recursion $\pi (x)=\{\pi (y):y\in x\cap X\}$ and well-founded relation induction give this pointwise. If also $T\in X$, then $\pi (T)=T$.

On a compact connected smooth manifold without boundary, two positive volume forms for the same orientation are related by an orientation-preserving diffeomorphism exactly when their total integrals agree. A positive interpolation and Cartan's magic formula give the smooth isotopy realizing the equality.

For a morphism of sheaves of abelian groups or modules, the kernel sheaf has sections $\ker (\mathcal{F}(U)\to \mathcal{G}(U))$. These already satisfy the sheaf gluing axiom. Its stalk at $x$ is the kernel of ${\mathcal{F}}_x\to {\mathcal{G}}_x$, since filtered colimits of modules preserve exactness. A sheaf morphism is injective exactly when its kernel sheaf is zero.

For $k\ge 1$, put $U={\mathbb{CP}}^{2k}\setminus {\mathbb{RP}}^{2k}$. Its cohomology ring isHere $x$ is the restricted hyperplane class. The cohomological Gysin map of an embedding sends $a^{2j}$ to $h^{k+j}$ and every odd-degree class to zero, by Poincare duality and mod-two restriction from complex to real projective space. Its exact sequence gives one-dimensional groups in even degrees $0,2,\dots ,4k-2$, and zero otherwise. Choose $y$ with $\delta y=a$. The connecting-map module identity gives $\delta (x^{j}y)=a^{2j+1}$ for $0\le j<k$, so these are the upper-half generators. The lower-half generators are $x^j$. The relations $x^k=0$ and $y^2=0$ follow respectively from $i_{!}1=h^k$ and $H^{4k}(U;{\mathbb{F}}_2)=0$. The result is a ring isomorphism with Complex projective space ${\mathbb{CP}}^{k-1}$ times $S^{2k}$; it does not by itself assert a homotopy equivalence of the spaces.

The Minimum-dissipation theorem for Stokes flow compares fields with fixed boundary velocities. Introducing a freely moving rigid inclusion can reduce velocity and total power at fixed applied force while increasing the resistance at fixed velocity. Extending the inclusion's rigid velocity through its interior adds zero viscous dissipation and gives a trial field in the domain without that inclusion, proving the fixed-velocity comparison.

The minimax risk is the infimum over estimators of the supremum of their risk functions over a parameter class. An upper bound supplies an estimator; a lower bound applies to every estimator, often using the Le Cam two-point lemma.

A metric geodesic triangle consists of three points of a geodesic metric space and a chosen metric geodesic segment between each pair. Multiple choices are allowed, and coincident vertices give degenerate triangles. A Gromov-hyperbolic metric space has a uniform bound on the distance from each side to the other two sides for every such choice. This definition applies to Cayley graphs and trees without tangent vectors or curvature assumptions; it does not invoke the surface angle formula for a geodesic triangle.

Harmonic balance substitutes a finite Fourier series into a differential equation and projects the residual onto the retained harmonics. It determines their amplitudes and phases. A nonlinear equation generally generates additional harmonics, so vanishing of the projected residual alone does not make the finite series an exact solution. In a weakly nonlinear expansion, nonresonant generated harmonics can be found at the next order by solving their linear equations.

A weakly nonlinear expansion writes a small disturbance as powers of an amplitude parameter while resolving its evolution on a slow time. Near a critical eigenvalue, linear detuning and nonlinear interactions enter the same perturbation order. The Fredholm solvability condition for a self-adjoint operator, or its adjoint form for a general operator, yields an amplitude equation without requiring the full higher-order correction.

If a spatial method of lines has a Hermitian matrix $H$, its generator $-iH$ is a skew-Hermitian matrix. The matrix exponential $e^{-itH}$ is a unitary matrix, so it preserves the Euclidean norm and any constant-volume discrete L2 norm. Equivalently, differentiating the squared norm gives $2\mathrm{Re}(-i{U}^{\ast }HU)=0$. A real sampled potential preserves the Hermitian property of a symmetric discrete Laplacian. Subsequent time discretization must be assessed separately.

Let $J(s)={\int }_1^{\infty }(\theta (t)-1)t^{s/2-1}dt$, with $\theta (t)={\sum }_{n\in \mathbb{Z}}{e}^{-\pi n^{2}t}$. Exponential decay makes $J$ an entire function. The Jacobi theta function transformation and a substitution in the Mellin transform giveThis continues the completed Riemann zeta function meromorphically, with residues $1$ and $-1$ at $1$ and $0$, and makes the functional equation of the Riemann zeta function immediate. Dividing by the Gamma function removes the apparent pole at zero from $\zeta (s)$.

For an integer $K\ge 2$, multiplication by $K$ on the circle group preserves normalized Lebesgue measure. Each inverse image consists of $K$ branches, each scaling lengths by $1/K$.

The integrated mean squared error is $\mathbb{E}{\int }_D(\hat{m}(x)-m(x){)}^{2}dx$ over a specified domain $D$. The Tonelli theorem permits integration of the pointwise bias-variance decomposition of mean squared error.

The source-free Maxwell Lagrangian gives $S=-\frac{1}{4}\int F_{\mu \nu }{F}^{\mu \nu }{d}^{4}x$ in mostly-minus Lorentzian signature. Its Euclidean action is the displayed positive quadratic functional of the electromagnetic field tensor. Variation, with boundary terms vanishing, yields ${\partial }_{\mu }{F}_{\mu \nu }=0$.

For a harmonic function $w$ smooth inside a bounded domain and $C^1$ on its closure, $\Delta |Dw{|}^2=2|D^{2}w{|}^2\ge 0$. The weak maximum principle for elliptic operators and continuity of the gradient imply ${\sup }_{\Omega }|Dw|={\sup }_{\partial \Omega }|Dw|$.