A minimal <causal directed acyclic graph> has edges
$$
A\to Y,quad A\to M,quad M\to Y,quad M\to S,quad
Z\to A,quad D\to A,quad D\to C,quad C\to M,quad
G\to A,quad G\to Y,quad W\to Y.
$$

Solution

Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge / 2025 / iii / Paper 221 / 3 / a / Solution

A causal directed acyclic graph represents variables by vertices and direct causal relations by arrows. Its graphical separation rules encode conditional independences implied by the causal model.


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