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For a multiplication operator $A_j(x)$, $[p_i,A_j]=-i\hslash {\partial }_i{A}_j$. Therefore the mechanical momentum satisfiesThe displayed ladder operators implicitly require $qB>0$, so that their denominator is real and the second is the adjoint of the first. Then $[a,a^{†}]=1$ andThe free longitudinal motion gives a continuous spectrum in $k_z$, and the transverse Landau levels have guiding-centre degeneracy of a Landau level. For arbitrary sign of $qB$, use $|qB|$ in the energy and $a=({\pi }_x+i\mathrm{sgn}(qB){\pi }_y)/\sqrt{2\hslash |qB|}$. The question's normalizable wavefunctions likewise assume $qB>0$.

For the stated symmetric-gauge wavefunction, $|\psi {|}^2\propto r^{2M}{e}^{-qB{r}^2/(2\hslash )}$, whose peak for $M>0$ is at $r_M^2=2\hslash M/(qB)$. Thus the largest useful angular index is about $qB{R}^2/(2\hslash )$, givingThe $M=0$ state should also be included in the usual lowest Landau level; its omission by “positive integer” changes only an order-one term. Including the radial measure shifts the most probable radius to $r^2=(2M+1)\hslash /(qB)$, again only an order-one counting correction. Boundary conditions and the tails of the wavefunctions make this a large-flux estimate, not an exact finite-disc count.

After division by $z$, the coefficients are $P=2/z-1$ and $Q=-1/z$. At $0$, $zP$ and $z^{2}Q$ are analytic functions, so $0$ is a regular singular point. Its indicial equation is $r(r-1)+2r=r(r+1)=0$. There are no other finite singular points of a differential equation. At infinity the regular singular point criterion for a second-order equation would require $P=O(z^{-1})$, but $P\to -1$; hence infinity is an irregular singular point.

Substituting $y=f/z$ reduces the equation to $f^{\prime \prime }-f^{\prime }=0$, soA linearly independent pair is $1/z$ and $(e^z-1)/z$. Their Wronskian is $e^z/z^2\ne 0$. The second has a removable singularity at $0$ and value $1$, whereas the first has a simple pole, agreeing with the two characteristic exponents at a regular singular point, $0,-1$. The integer difference does not require a logarithm. At infinity $e^z/z$ has an essential singularity, consistent with the irregular singular point; the existence of the simpler solution $1/z$ does not make infinity regular.

Dirichlet theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions states that if positive integer $q$ and integer $a$ satisfy $\gcd (a,q)=1$, then infinitely many prime numbers satisfyThe coprimality hypothesis is essential: if $a$ and $q$ have a common factor greater than one, a prime in the progression must divide that factor, giving at most finitely many possibilities.

Both forms have discriminant of a binary quadratic form $-60$. The reduction algorithm for a positive definite binary quadratic form gives $|b|\le a\le c$ and $a\le \sqrt{60/3}<5$ for a reduced positive definite representative. Enumerating $a=1,2,3,4$ givesThe second and fourth forms are imprimitive and represent only even integers. Every odd prime represented by a form of discriminant of a binary quadratic form $-60$ must therefore be represented by $f$ or $g$.

For a prime $p\nmid 30$, quadratic reciprocity givesEvery prime $p\equiv 1(\mathrm{mod}15)$ has this symbol equal to one and hence is represented by one of the two primitive forms, by part (b). But an odd prime represented by $g$ and different from three is $2(\mathrm{mod}3)$, so these primes must be represented by $f$. Similarly, primes $p\equiv 2(\mathrm{mod}15)$ have both symbols equal to $-1$, and are represented by $g$, since a prime represented by $f$ is $1(\mathrm{mod}3)$. Both residue classes are coprime to 15, so Dirichlet theorem on primes in arithmetic progressions proves each form represents infinitely many primes.

The same modulo-three distinction excludes every prime other than three from being represented by both. The form $f$ does not represent three; $g$ represents three and five but neither is represented by $f$, and two is represented by neither. Therefore there are no primes represented by both forms.

For each integer $m$, take ${\gamma }_m(t)=e^{2\pi imt}$. It is a continuous closed curve avoiding zero and has the continuous argument $2\pi mt$. ConsequentlyPositive and negative integers correspond to opposite senses of traversal, and the constant curve gives zero.

For a square-free integer $\delta \equiv 2$ or $3(\mathrm{mod}4)$, the ring of integers of the quadratic field is ${\mathcal{O}}_{\mathbb{Q}(\sqrt{\delta })}=\mathbb{Z}[\sqrt{\delta }]$. Square-freeness is the usual convention underlying the first request: congruence alone would not suffice, for example $\delta =27$ gives the same field as $\delta =3$.

Now take the stipulated square-free $\delta \equiv 3(\mathrm{mod}4)$ and put $r=\sqrt{2}$, $s=\sqrt{\delta }$. For any integral $\alpha =a+br+cs+drs$, relative traces to the three quadratic subfields show $2a,2b,2c,2d\in \mathbb{Z}$. Those subfields all have integral bases $1$ and their square root, including $\mathbb{Q}(\sqrt{2\delta })$. Write $\alpha =(A+Br+Cs+Drs)/2$ with integer coefficients.

Its relative field norm to $\mathbb{Q}(s)$ isThus $AC$ is even, and the constant numerator is divisible by four. Since $\delta \equiv 3(\mathrm{mod}4)$, these conditions force $A,C$ both even: one odd makes the numerator odd, and both odd contradicts $AC$ even. They then force $B,D$ to have the same integer parity. Every algebraic integer consequently belongs to the lattice generated byConversely the last generator $w$ satisfies $w^2=(1+\delta )/2+\sqrt{\delta }$ and the monic integer equationAll four generators are integral and linearly independent over $\mathbb{Q}$, so this lattice is exactly ${\mathcal{O}}_L$, proving this integral basis of an odd biquadratic field containing square root of two without an unproved index assumption.

Expand the finite Euler product into geometric series. By unique prime factorization, it is the sum of $1/n$ over positive integers whose prime factors do not exceed $x$, and hence contains every term up to $m=\lfloor x\rfloor$. The harmonic sum satisfiesThe last inequality uses $m+1>x$, including when $x$ is an integer. For each prime number $p$,The telescoping series over all integers $n\ge 2$ bounds the sum of these remainders by $\frac{1}{2}{\sum }_{n\ge 2}[n(n-1){]}^{-1}=1/2$. Taking logarithms of the product bound therefore givesThis explicit constant suffices; no asymptotic theorem about the distribution of prime numbers is needed.

For $z\ne 0$, the principal value of complex exponentiation is $z^w=\exp (w\mathrm{Log}z)$, where the principal complex logarithm is $\mathrm{Log}z=\log |z|+i\mathrm{Arg}z$ with $-\pi <\mathrm{Arg}z\le \pi$. De Moivre's theorem states that $(\cos \theta +i\sin \theta {)}^n=\cos (n\theta )+i\sin (n\theta )$ for every integer $n$.

Since $\sqrt{3}+i=2e^{i\pi /6}$, the six roots are

Write $\alpha =\sqrt[n]{m}$ and $\zeta =e^{2\pi i/n}$. The $n$ field embeddings of $L$ into $\mathbb{C}$ send $\alpha$ to ${\zeta }^j\alpha$, so the field trace isFor the trace pairing $T(x,y)={\mathrm{Tr}}_{L/\mathbb{Q}}(xy)$, the basis ${\beta }_i={\alpha }^i$ therefore has dual basis

Every element of $\mathbb{Z}[\alpha ]$ is an algebraic integer. If $x\in {\mathcal{O}}_L$ and $z\in \mathbb{Z}[\alpha ]$, then $xz$ is an algebraic integer and its trace is an integer. Thus $x$ belongs to the trace-dual lattice of $\mathbb{Z}[\alpha ]$, which is generated over $\mathbb{Z}$ by the displayed dual basis. Since $1/n=m/(nm)$, every such linear combination lies in $(nm{)}^{-1}\mathbb{Z}[\alpha ]$. Hence

LetAssume for a contradiction that $S=a/b$ is rational. For every $N\ge b$, both $N!S$ andare integers, because the $m_n$ are integers. Their positive differencemust therefore be a positive integer.

On the other hand, concavity of $x^{\alpha }$ for $0\le \alpha <1$ gives $(N+k{)}^{\alpha }\le N^{\alpha }+k^{\alpha }\le N^{\alpha }+k$. Since $(N+1)\cdots (N+k)\ge (N+1{)}^k$,Eventually $0<R_N<1$, contradicting its integrality. Hence

The integrality assumption is essential. For example, take $\alpha =0$, $A=2$, andThen $1<m_n<2$, but the exponential series givesThus the result does not remain true for arbitrary real $m_n$.

Let $I=[N]$ and let $f=1_A-\delta 1_I$ be the balanced indicator function, extended by zero to the integers. For finitely supported functions define the linear configuration countSince $A$ has no nonconstant three-term arithmetic progression, $\Lambda (1_A,1_A,1_A)=|A|=\delta N$. On the other hand, $\Lambda (1_I,1_I,1_I)\ge N^2/4$. Hence, once $N$ is sufficiently large in terms of $\delta$,for an absolute $c_0>0$.

Use the unnormalized Fourier transform $\hat{h}(\theta )={\sum }_{x}h(x)e(-\theta x)$ on $\mathbb{R}/\mathbb{Z}$. Telescoping $1_A=\delta 1_I+f$ writes the preceding difference asLet $M=\Vert \hat{f}{\Vert }_{\infty }$. The Fourier-integral formula for $\Lambda$, followed by the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality and the Parseval identity, bounds these three terms respectively byThey are all at most $M\delta N$, sofor an absolute $c_1>0$. Choose $\theta$ with $|\hat{f}(\theta )|=M$.

By the Dirichlet approximation theorem, some integer $1\le d\le \sqrt{N}$ satisfies $\Vert d\theta {\Vert }_{\mathbb{R}/\mathbb{Z}}\le N^{-1/2}$. Choose a sufficiently small absolute multiple $\eta$ of ${\delta }^2$. Partition each residue-class progression of common difference $d$ into progressions $P_j$ whose lengths lie between $\eta \sqrt{N}$ and $2\eta \sqrt{N}$; for sufficiently large $N$, short final pieces can be joined to the preceding piece. On each $P_j$, the linear phase $e(-\theta x)$ varies by at most $4\pi \eta$. Choosing $\eta$ small enough compared with $c_1{\delta }^2$ therefore yieldsThe sums over all cells add to ${\sum }_{I}f=0$, so their positive parts total half their absolute values. At least one $P_j$ consequently satisfiesThis is the Roth density-increment step, and it giveswith $c=c_1/4$ and $\eta >0$ depending only on $\delta$.

Let the known phase gate on the answer register bewhere the comparison uses ordinary integers, not modular arithmetic. A reversible circuit computes the predicate, applies a Pauli Z gate to its flag, then performs uncomputation.

The compute-phase-uncompute construction now givesUse modular-oracle inversion by negation to realize the last operation with one further $U_f$ query. Exactly two oracle queries implement $I_g$, returning the answer register and comparison workspace to their initial states.

A reduced positive definite binary quadratic form $f=[a,b,c]=a{x}^2+bxy+c{y}^2$ satisfieswith $b\ge 0$ when $|b|=a$ or $a=c$. Its discriminant of a binary quadratic form is $d=b^2-4ac<0$. The first displayed inequality already gives $|b|\le a$, while $c\ge a$ givesTaking the positive square root yieldsMoreover, $d=b^2-4ac\equiv b^2\equiv b(\mathrm{mod}2)$, so $b\equiv d(\mathrm{mod}2)$. For fixed negative $d$, the displayed bounds leave only finitely many possible integers $a$ and $b$, and then $c=(b^2-d)/(4a)$ is uniquely determined. Hence only finitely many reduced forms have discriminant $d$.

For $d=-15$, the bound gives $a\le \sqrt{5}$, so $a\in \{1,2\}$. The modular congruence condition makes $b$ odd. If $a=1$, then $b=\pm 1$ and $c=4$; the boundary convention $|b|=a\Rightarrow b\ge 0$ retains $[1,1,4]$. If $a=2$, then $b=\pm 1$ and $c=2$; the boundary convention $a=c\Rightarrow b\ge 0$ retains $[2,1,2]$. Thus the complete list is

Assume for contradiction that $\pi =a/b$ with positive integers $a,b$. DefineandThe coefficient of $x^{n+j}$ in $F_n$ isConsequently every derivative $F_n^{(k)}(0)$ is an integer: it is zero unless $n\le k\le 2n$, and in that range the factor $k!/n!$ clears the denominator. Since $F_n(\pi -x)=F_n(x)$, every $F_n^{(k)}(\pi )$ is also an integer.

Repeated integration by parts, ending when derivatives above degree $2n$ vanish, givesThus $I_n$ is an integer. It is strictly positive because $F_n(x)\sin x>0$ for $0<x<\pi$.

On the other hand, $x(\pi -x)\le {\pi }^2/4$, soThe factorial-over-power series implies that the right-hand side tends to zero. For all sufficiently large $n$ this says that the positive integer $I_n$ is less than one, a contradiction. Therefore the Irrationality of pi is established:

Since $p/q$ is not a root, $q^{d}f(p/q)$ is a nonzero integer, and henceMoreover $0<\theta -p/q<1$ implies $|p/q|<|\theta |+1$. Applying part (i) to $s=\theta$, $t=p/q$, and using $f(\theta )=0$ givesRearrangement provesThis is the core estimate behind the Liouville approximation theorem.