Kamiokande

Kamiokande, associated with Masatoshi Koshiba, was an underground water Cherenkov detector viewed by photomultipliers. Improved water purity and reduced background enabled solar neutrino observations. A concentration of reconstructed recoil directions toward the Sun distinguished a source signal above an approximately direction-independent background.^[ref]

For solar neutrinos, Electron elastic scattering supplies a directional recoil, with different cross sections for active neutrino flavors. Neither the Homestake experiment deficit nor the SN 1987A neutrino burst alone established neutrino oscillation; later evidence compared complementary channels and propagation effects.^[ref]

Water Cherenkov neutrino reconstruction infers a vertex, time and charged particle direction from photomultiplier pulses. The 1987 analysis recorded charge and timing, calibrated with decaying muons and source-produced gamma rays, and rejected outer-detector activity and events following muons.^[ref]

In an ideal point-flash approximation, a light source at ${\mathbf{r}}_0$ and time $t_0$ gives the displayed travel-time relation at sensor ${\mathbf{r}}_i$ in a medium of refractive index $n$. Subtracting two times eliminates $t_0$. With a chosen constant $n=1.33$ and path lengths $3\mathrm{m}$ and $6\mathrm{m}$, the arrival-time difference is $n(3\mathrm{m})/c\simeq 13.31\mathrm{ns}$. These are synthetic inputs, not detector measurements. Several sensors constrain the vertex; an extended moving track requires the light-emission position and time along that track as well.

For a charged particle moving at $v=\beta c$, the Cherenkov cone angle satisfies $\cos {\theta }_C=1/(n\beta )$ when $n\beta >1$. With $\beta \simeq 1$ and the illustrative $n=1.33$, ${\theta }_C\simeq 41.25^{\circ }$. The geometrical cone carries track-direction information; Electron deflections and the spread of emission positions broaden the observed pattern. The neutrino itself does not draw the light cone.

A Cherenkov radiation threshold and an analysis threshold are different constraints. For a fixed $n$, an Electron must exceed $T_C=m_e{c}^2[(1-n^{-2}{)}^{-1/2}-1]$. With $m_e{c}^2=0.511\mathrm{MeV}$ and the chosen $n=1.33$, this gives about $0.264\mathrm{MeV}$. Recording and selecting a useful event requires much more light: the 1987 detector's trigger accepted $8.5\mathrm{MeV}$ Electrons with 50% efficiency.^[ref]