Here is a list of notable star systems located within the distance range of 40 to 45 light-years from Earth: 1. **Gliese 1** - A binary star system that includes Gliese 1 A and Gliese 1 B. 2. **Gliese 65** - Also known as HD 154857, is a binary star system.

Genomic control, often referred to as genomic selection or genomic prediction, is a method used in genetics and genomics to improve the accuracy of breeding programs. It is primarily applied in agriculture, animal breeding, and plant breeding to enhance desired traits in organisms, such as yield, disease resistance, or environmental adaptability. The concept involves using genome-wide information, typically derived from high-throughput genotyping technologies, to identify genetic markers associated with specific traits.

The Balding–Nichols model is a statistical model used in the field of population genetics to describe the distribution of allele frequencies in a population. Specifically, it focuses on the genetic variation that arises from a combination of mutation, selection, and genetic drift over time, particularly in the context of a neutral model where selection is not acting on the alleles. The model is often used to understand the genetic structure of populations and how genetic diversity can be maintained or lost due to various evolutionary processes.

Coalescent theory is a model in population genetics that describes the genetic ancestry of alleles in a population over time. It provides a framework for understanding the genealogical relationships between individuals based on their genetic material and how these relationships have evolved in response to population processes such as reproduction, selection, mutation, migration, and genetic drift.

The "common disease-common variant" (CDCV) hypothesis is a genetic concept that suggests that common diseases, such as diabetes, heart disease, and certain psychiatric disorders, are predominantly caused by common genetic variants in the population. According to this hypothesis, these diseases arise from the cumulative effects of many variants that are relatively frequent in the population, rather than from rare mutations or variants.

Gases are one of the fundamental states of matter, along with solids and liquids. They are characterized by their ability to expand to fill the shape and volume of their container. Unlike solids and liquids, the molecules in a gas are much farther apart and move freely. Here are some key properties and characteristics of gases: 1. **Low Density**: Gases have much lower densities compared to solids and liquids because the molecules are widely spaced.

The McDonald–Kreitman test is a statistical method used in evolutionary biology to assess the role of natural selection versus neutral evolution in shaping genetic variation within a population. Developed by biologists Brian McDonald and David Kreitman in the 1990s, the test compares the ratio of synonymous to nonsynonymous substitutions in a particular gene or set of genes.

The AKLT model, named after its creators Affleck, Kennedy, Lieb, and Tasaki, is a theoretical model used in condensed matter physics to study quantum magnetism, particularly in the context of one-dimensional spin systems. It serves as a prime example of a spin-1 chain that exhibits a ground state with intriguing properties, such as a clear distinction between the classical and quantum behavior of spins.

A Quantitative Trait Locus (QTL) is a region of the genome that is associated with a quantitative trait, which is a measurable phenotype that varies continuously and is typically influenced by multiple genes and environmental factors. These traits can include characteristics such as height, weight, yield, and disease resistance, among others. QTL mapping is a statistical method used to identify these loci and to determine their effect on the trait of interest.

The "W-test" can refer to different concepts depending on the context, as there are several tests in statistics and other fields that might use similar nomenclature. Here are a couple of possibilities: 1. **W-test in Statistics**: This could refer to the **Wilcoxon signed-rank test**, which is often denoted as "W". This non-parametric test is used to compare two paired groups to assess whether their population mean ranks differ.

Thermodynamic entropy is a fundamental concept in thermodynamics, a branch of physics that deals with heat, work, and energy transfer. It is a measure of the disorder or randomness of a thermodynamic system and quantifies the amount of thermal energy in a system that is not available to perform work.

The Berezinskii–Kosterlitz–Thouless (BKT) transition is a phenomenon in statistical physics and condensed matter physics that describes a type of phase transition that occurs in two-dimensional systems with a continuous symmetry, such as the XY model. It was first proposed by Vladimir Berezinskii, J. Michael Kosterlitz, and David Thouless in the 1970s.

Informal inferential reasoning refers to the process of drawing conclusions or making inferences based on observations and experiences without employing formal statistical methods or rigorous logical arguments. This type of reasoning relies on informal logic, personal judgments, and anecdotal evidence rather than structured data analysis or established scientific principles. Key characteristics of informal inferential reasoning include: 1. **Contextual Understanding**: It takes into account the context in which observations are made.

Pseudolikelihood is a statistical technique used in the context of estimating parameters for models where traditional likelihood methods may be computationally intractable or where the full likelihood is difficult to specify. It is particularly useful in cases involving complex dependencies among multiple variables, such as in spatial statistics, graphical models, and certain machine learning applications. The idea behind pseudolikelihood is to approximate the full likelihood of a joint distribution by breaking it down into a product of conditional likelihoods.

Percolation theory is a mathematical concept originally developed in the context of physics and materials science to study the behavior of connected clusters in a random medium. It explores how the properties of such clusters change as the density of the medium is varied. The theory has applications in various fields, including physics, chemistry, computer science, biology, and even social sciences.

The Airy process is a stochastic process that arises in the study of random matrix theory and the statistical behavior of certain models in statistical physics and combinatorial structures. It is closely related to the Airy functions and is named after the Airy differential equation, which describes the behavior of these functions. The Airy process can be understood as a limit of certain types of random walks or random matrices, particularly in the context of asymptotic analysis.

BIO-LGCA refers to a type of bio-based life cycle assessment (LCA) used for evaluating the environmental impacts of bio-based products and processes. Life cycle assessment is a systematic approach for assessing the environmental aspects and potential impacts associated with a product, process, or service throughout its life cycle, from raw material extraction through production, use, and disposal.

A Boolean network is a mathematical model used to represent the interactions between a set of variables that can take on binary values, typically representing two states: true (1) and false (0). This model is particularly useful in various fields, including computational biology, systems biology, computer science, and engineering. ### Key Components of Boolean Networks: 1. **Nodes**: Each node in the network represents a variable, which can take on one of two values (0 or 1).

Chapman–Enskog theory is a mathematical framework used to derive macroscopic transport equations from microscopic kinetic theory in gas dynamics. It provides a systematic method for obtaining expressions for transport coefficients (such as viscosity, thermal conductivity, and diffusion coefficients) in gases, starting from the Boltzmann equation, which describes the statistical behavior of a dilute gas.