Write $q^1=u$, $q^2=v$, ${\sigma }_i={\partial }_i\sigma$, and let $g_{ij}={\sigma }_i\cdot {\sigma }_j$ be the first fundamental form. Sincedifferentiating ${\sigma }_u\cdot \dot{\gamma }$ and ${\sigma }_v\cdot \dot{\gamma }$, or equivalently taking the two inner products of the second formula with ${\sigma }_k$, givesThe matrix $(g_{k\ell })$ is invertible because $\sigma$ is a regular embedded surface parametrization. Consequently the two geodesic equations hold exactly when $\ddot{\gamma }$ is orthogonal to both tangent vectors ${\sigma }_u$ and ${\sigma }_v$, which says precisely that $\ddot{\gamma }$ is a normal vector. This is the ambient acceleration criterion for a surface geodesic.

Because $\dot{\gamma }$ is tangent and $\ddot{\gamma }$ is normal,Thus an affinely parametrized geodesic has constant speed, as recorded by constant speed of an affinely parametrized geodesic.

For a surface of revolution, use profile arc length $s$ and azimuth $\varphi$. Its Riemannian metric isThe azimuth is an ignorable coordinate, so the corresponding geodesic equation has the first integralIf $v=|\dot{\gamma }|$ and $\theta$ is the oriented angle with the parallel, then the component of velocity along the parallel isSince $v$ is constant,This is the Clairaut first integral for a surface of revolution.

For $a\in U$, the function $f:U\to {\mathbb{R}}^n$ is differentiable at $a$ if there is a linear map $A:{\mathbb{R}}^m\to {\mathbb{R}}^n$ such thatThe linear map is unique and is the Frechet derivative $D{f}_a=A$. The function is continuously differentiable at $a$ if it is differentiable on a neighbourhood of $a$ and the map $x\mapsto D{f}_x$, with values in the space of linear maps equipped with the operator norm, is continuous at $a$.

If $T:{\mathbb{R}}^m\to {\mathbb{R}}^n$ is linear, thenConsequently $D{T}_a=T$ at every $a$. The derivative is a constant function of $a$, hence is continuous, so every linear map is continuously differentiable everywhere.

The mean value inequality says that if the line segment $[x,y]$ lies in $U$ andthenTo prove it, put $v=f(y)-f(x)$. The claim is immediate if $v=0$. Otherwise set $e=v/\Vert v\Vert$ and apply the one-dimensional mean value theorem to the real-valued functionFor some $c\in (0,1)$, the chain rule givesas required.

Now suppose that $U$ is open and connected and that $D{f}_a=0$ for every $a\in U$. Every point has an open ball contained in $U$. The mean value inequality with $M=0$ shows that $f$ is constant on each such ball, so $f$ is locally constant. Fix $a_0\in U$. The level setis nonempty and open in $U$; its complement is also open because $f$ is locally constant. Since $U$ is connected, $E=U$. This proves the zero derivative on a connected open set result: $f$ is constant.

The inverse function theorem states that if $f:U\to {\mathbb{R}}^m$ is continuously differentiable, $a\in U$, and $D{f}_a$ is an invertible linear map, then there are open neighbourhoods $V$ of $a$ and $W$ of $f(a)$ such that $f{|}_V:V\to W$ is a bijection whose inverse is continuously differentiable.

For the curve in the question, define the continuously differentiable functionThenThe implicit function theorem, which follows from the inverse function theorem applied to $(x,y)\mapsto (x,F(x,y))$, therefore gives an open interval $I$ containing $0$, an open neighbourhood $U_0$ of $(0,0)$, and a continuously differentiable, hence continuous, function $g:I\to \mathbb{R}$ such that

For an $n\times n$ matrix $A$, the characteristic polynomial isThe Cayley-Hamilton theorem states that ${\chi }_A(A)=0$.

Over $\mathbb{C}$, choose a basis in which $A$ is upper triangular, with diagonal entries ${\lambda }_1,\dots ,{\lambda }_n$. For the standard invariant flag $V_j=⟨e_1,\dots ,e_j⟩$,The factors $A-{\lambda }_{j}I$ commute, so applying their product in descending order sends $V_n$ successively into $V_{n-1},\dots ,V_0=0$. Hencewhich proves the theorem.

Direct expansion gives the commutator product rule:

Put $C=[B,A]$. Since $C$ commutes with $A$, repeated use of the product rule givesBy linearity, for every polynomial $\phi$,

Let $D(X)=[B,X]$ and suppose $f(A)=0$. For $k=1$,Assume inductively thatBoth $u$ and $C$ are polynomials in, or commute with, $A$, so $u{C}^m=C^{m}u=0$. Apply the derivation $D$ to $u{C}^m=0$ and multiply on the left by $C^m$:Since $D(u)=f^{(k+1)}(A)C$, this saysThe induction is complete. Taking $f={\chi }_A$ and $k=n$ givesThus $[B,A]$ is nilpotent, which is the Jacobson lemma for a commuting commutator.

UseStationarity givesPutting $t=\lambda /2$, this becomesand the constraint requiresThe left side is strictly increasing, and $t=1$ solves the equation. Hence

The objective is convex and the constraint is affine. Its tangent-plane inequality at $(1,1,1)$ gives, for every feasible $(x,y,z)$,so the Lagrange point is globally optimal. Moreover, at the dual value $\lambda =2$, the infimum of the Lagrangian function in constrained optimization is attained at the same point and equals three. The primal and dual values coincide, so strong duality holds.

For the value function, the multiplier convention above gives the derivative of a constrained value functionAt $b=6$, therefore,

A capacitor consists of two conductors carrying equal and opposite charges. Its capacitance iswhere $Q$ is the magnitude of the charge on either conductor and $V$ is their potential difference.

For $a<r<b$, a coaxial Gaussian cylinder of length $\ell$ encloses charge $\lambda \ell$. Gauss's law givesTaking $V$ to mean the inner potential minus the outer potential,Since $Q=\lambda L$,

The field energy isThese are the standard coaxial cylindrical capacitor formulas.

The function is odd, so only sine coefficients occur. For $n\ge 1$,Integration by parts givesandThe terms of order $1/n$ cancel, leavingThus

The Parseval identity givesDirect integration yieldsThereforeas recorded in the Fourier series of x cubed minus pi squared x.

Suppose first that $X$ is connected and $f:X\to \mathbb{Z}$ is continuous. Its image is connected by the continuous image of a connected space, but $\mathbb{Z}$ is discrete, so its only connected nonempty subsets are singletons. Hence $f$ is constant.

Conversely, if $X=U\cup V$ is a disconnection into nonempty disjoint open sets, the function equal to zero on $U$ and one on $V$ is continuous and nonconstant. This proves the integer-valued function criterion for connectedness.

Now let $f:X\to \mathbb{Z}$ be continuous under the hypotheses on the family $\mathcal{A}$. Each restriction $f{|}_A$ is constant because $A$ is connected. If $A,B\in \mathcal{A}$, a point of $A\cap B$ shows that their two constants agree. Since the sets cover $X$, $f$ is constant on $X$, and the criterion proves that $X$ is connected. This is the pairwise-intersecting connected cover argument.

Finally, fix $y_0\in Y$. For each $x\in X$, the setis connected: its two connected pieces meet at $(x,y_0)$. The sets $A_x$ cover $X\times Y$ and any two share $X\times \{y_0\}$. The preceding result proves that $X\times Y$ is connected, giving the product of connected spaces result.

Forthe parity condition is preserved by componentwise addition, negation, and multiplication, and $(1,1)$ is the identity. Thus $R$ is a ring.

It is not an integral domain, since $(2,0)$ and $(0,2)$ are nonzero elements of $R$ whose product is zero. It is also not a product of two nontrivial rings. Indeed, an idempotent in ${\mathbb{Z}}^2$ has each coordinate in $\{0,1\}$, and the parity condition leaves only $(0,0)$ and $(1,1)$. The proved equivalence then excludes a nontrivial product decomposition.