Back pressure is a term used in various fields, notably in engineering and fluid dynamics, to describe a situation where resistance or pressure within a system prevents or slows down the movement of fluids or gases. It can occur in different contexts, such as: 1. **Fluid Systems**: In pipelines or hydraulic systems, back pressure is the pressure exerted in the opposite direction of the flow. It can be caused by factors such as narrowing of pipes, obstructions, or changes in elevation.

Probability Bounds Analysis (PBA) is a quantitative method used in decision-making and risk analysis that helps assess uncertainty in probabilistic models. It is particularly beneficial when precise probability distributions are difficult to obtain, and instead, one may only have limited information about the underlying uncertainties. PBA uses interval probability distributions to represent the uncertainties and derive bounds on the probabilities of various outcomes.

Fritz Strassmann was a German physicist who is best known for his work in nuclear chemistry and for his role in the discovery of nuclear fission. He was born on February 22, 1902, and passed away on April 22, 1980.

John N. Bahcall (1934–2005) was a prominent American astrophysicist known for his significant contributions to the fields of solar and particle astrophysics. He was particularly recognized for his influential work on the solar neutrino problem, which involved studying the neutrinos produced by nuclear reactions in the Sun's core and their detection on Earth. Bahcall's theoretical predictions about the number of neutrinos expected to be detected were crucial for understanding the processes occurring in the Sun.

In the context of Wikipedia, a "stub" is a small, incomplete article that provides some basic information about a topic but lacks detailed content. A "Mathematical logic stub" refers specifically to a brief article related to the field of mathematical logic that needs further expansion and development. Mathematical logic itself is a subfield of mathematics and philosophy that focuses on formal systems, proof theory, model theory, set theory, and computability, among other areas.

Logical truth refers to statements or propositions that are true in all possible interpretations or under all conceivable circumstances. In formal terms, a logical truth is typically a statement that can be proven to be true through logical deduction and does not depend on any specific facts or empirical evidence. One classic example of a logical truth is the statement "If it is raining, then it is raining." This statement is true regardless of whether or not it is actually raining because it holds true based solely on its logical structure.

Mathematical logic organizations are professional associations, societies, or groups that focus on the advancement and dissemination of research in mathematical logic and related areas. These organizations foster collaboration among researchers, provide platforms for sharing ideas, and often organize conferences, workshops, and publications in the field of mathematical logic.

Structuralism in the philosophy of mathematics is an approach that emphasizes the study of mathematical structures rather than the individual objects that make up those structures. This perspective focuses on the relationships and interconnections among mathematical entities, suggesting that mathematical truths depend not on the objects themselves, but on the structures that relate them. Key aspects of mathematical structuralism include: 1. **Structures over Objects**: Structuralism posits that mathematics is primarily concerned with the relationships and structures that can be formed from mathematical entities.

In the 1980s, the field of computing was undergoing significant changes and developments that laid the groundwork for the technology we use today. Here are some key computer-related introductions and developments from that era: 1. **Personal Computers (PCs)**: The early 1980s saw the rise of personal computers.

In 1987, the field of computing was experiencing significant developments that shaped its future. Here are some key aspects and introductions related to computers during that year: 1. **Operating Systems**: The late 1980s saw continued advancements in operating systems. Notably, Microsoft was gaining traction with MS-DOS, and Windows was beginning to evolve as a graphical interface over it, with Windows 2.0 released in late 1987.

In 1995, computer technology was experiencing significant growth and change. Here are some key aspects of the computer-related landscape during that year: 1. **The Rise of the Internet**: 1995 was a pivotal year in the expansion of the Internet. The World Wide Web was increasingly accessible to the general public, with web browsers like Netscape Navigator gaining popularity. This was the year the Internet started to become part of everyday life for many people.

In 2003, the field of computer technology was experiencing significant advancements and changes that shaped the way computing devices were used and integrated into daily life. Here are some key aspects that characterized computer-related introductions during that year: 1. **Operating Systems**: Major operating systems were evolving, with Microsoft releasing Windows XP, which was launched in late 2001 but continued to dominate the market in 2003. Linux distributions were also gaining popularity among power users and developers.

In 2007, the field of computer science and technology was marked by several key developments and trends that laid the groundwork for future advancements. Here are some notable aspects of computer-related introductions and innovations from that year: 1. **Web 2.0 and Social Media**: The concept of Web 2.0 was gaining traction, emphasizing user-generated content, social networking, and collaboration. Platforms like Facebook and Twitter were growing rapidly, fundamentally changing how people communicated and shared information online.

Canada has a history of several computer companies that were once notable but have since become defunct. Here are a few examples of such companies: 1. **Corel Corporation** - Founded in 1985, Corel was best known for its graphics software, including CorelDRAW. While the company still exists, it has drastically changed over the years and its original product lines have diminished.

Italy has had a vibrant technology and computing sector, and while several companies have succeeded, many have also become defunct over the years. Some notable defunct computer companies from Italy include: 1. **Olivetti**: Founded in 1908, Olivetti was known for its typewriters and later became a significant player in the computing industry with products like computers and software.

The "List of Wikipedia controversies" refers to various incidents and debates that have arisen around the content, editing practices, community behaviors, and policies within Wikipedia. Some notable controversies include: 1. **Biased Editing**: Concerns regarding systemic bias in articles, particularly in relation to gender, race, and culture, often stemming from underrepresentation of certain groups among Wikipedia editors.