Condensation followed by gravitational settling removes chemical elements from an atmospheric layer. The remaining gas may be in local chemical equilibrium with a depleted elemental inventory, while the column is not a closed equilibrium system.

Doppler spectroscopy detects an exoplanet through the host star's changing Doppler shift. Both bodies orbit their shared astronomical barycenter: the star undergoes stellar reflex motion even when the exoplanet itself is unseen. Its velocity along the line of sight shifts its spectral lines; at speeds small compared with the speed of light, $\Delta \lambda /\lambda \simeq v_r/c$, with positive $v_r$ for recession. Repeated measurements can fit a Kepler orbit, rather than merely detect one shifted spectrum. Starspots and other changes in stellar spectral lines must be distinguished from actual orbital motion.

For one companion in an isolated two-body problem, the stellar radial-velocity semi-amplitude isHere $G$ is the gravitational constant, $P$ the orbital period, $e$ the orbital eccentricity, and $M_{\star },M_p$ the star and exoplanet masses. The orbital inclination $i$ is measured relative to the sky plane: $i=0$ is face-on and $i=90^{\circ }$ is an edge-on orbit. The exact binary mass function measured from the fitted orbit isWith known $M_{\star }$ and $M_p\ll M_{\star }$, this is usually reported as $M_p\sin i$. Taking $\sin i=1$ gives the minimum companion mass; a smaller orbital inclination allows a larger mass. A detected exoplanet transit constrains $i$ close to $90^{\circ }$ for a compact planet orbiting well outside the star's surface, substantially resolving this ambiguity. Combining Doppler spectroscopy and exoplanet transit photometry then supplies a mass and radius for exoplanet interior studies.

For a computed circular example, let $q=M_p/M_{\star }=0.001$ and choose a relative orbital speed $V_{\mathrm{rel}}=100\mathrm{km}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$: this is the speed of the planet relative to the star, not its speed about the astronomical barycenter. Conservation of momentum givesThe barycentric velocities point in opposite directions, so their speeds add to $V_{\mathrm{rel}}$. Here $e=0$ and $K=V_{\star }\sin i$: $K=99.9001\mathrm{m}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$ at $i=90^{\circ }$, $49.9500\mathrm{m}{\mathrm{s}}^{-1}$ at $i=30^{\circ }$, and zero at $i=0$. The star still orbits in the face-on case, but its orbital velocity has no line-of-sight component. The plotted circular signal is $v_r(t)-\gamma =K\sin (2\pi t/P)$ for a chosen phase origin and constant system velocity $\gamma$.

Exoplanet transit photometry measures the decrease in a star's observed radiative flux during an exoplanet transit. Define $F_0$ as the unobscured star's observed radiative flux and $F(t)$ as the value at time $t$. For a dark, opaque exoplanet crossing a uniformly bright circular stellar disc, a fully superimposed planetary disc blocks exactly the fractionHere $R_p$ and $R_{\star }$ are the planet and star radii. This exoplanet transit depth determines a radius ratio, $R_p/R_{\star }=\sqrt{\delta }$; an absolute planet radius requires an independently estimated stellar radius. For $R_p/R_{\star }=0.10$, $\delta =0.010$: a one-percent dip, with $F_{\mathrm{full}}/F_0=0.990$. Halving the radius ratio to $0.05$ reduces the exoplanet transit depth to $0.0025$, a quarter as much.

For the central exoplanet transit illustrated below, the transit impact parameter is $b=0$. Write $k=R_p/R_{\star }<1$ and let $z$ be the projected centre-to-centre separation in units of $R_{\star }$. The light curve is $F/F_0=1-A(z)/\pi$, where $A(z)$ is the overlap area of circles of radii $1$ and $k$. There is no overlap when $z\ge 1+k$; the planetary disc is fully inside when $z\le 1-k$, giving $A=\pi k^2$. Between those limits, the overlap area grows or shrinks continuously. Thus even a uniform star has curved ingress and egress, with a flat bottom only during full overlap. The illustration uses approximately constant transverse velocity over the short crossing, so $z=|ut|/R_{\star }$ with mid-transit at $t=0$. Analytic models also handle limb darkening. ^[ref].

The simple exoplanet transit depth formula assumes constant stellar brightness, no limb darkening or starspots, negligible light from the exoplanet, and no transit dilution by other light. It describes full overlap in a non-grazing exoplanet transit, requiring $b<1-k$ for a full-overlap interval. A grazing exoplanet transit never hides the whole planetary disc against the star, and limb darkening weights different blocked areas differently. Repeating dips are valuable evidence, but eclipsing binary stars and starspots can imitate parts of the signal, so confirmation and joint modelling matter.

An exoplanet thermal phase curve measures infrared brightness throughout the orbit. Its amplitude constrains day-night heat redistribution, while its maximum's displacement from secondary eclipse constrains the offset of the hottest atmospheric region. Wavelength-dependent opacity makes different channels probe different pressures.

The atmospheric advection time over length $L$ at wind speed $U$ is ${\tau }_{\mathrm{adv}}\sim L/U$. Day-night heat redistribution tends to be efficient when this time and the relevant wave-adjustment time are shorter than the radiative relaxation time in a planetary atmosphere.

A column near pressure $p$ contains mass per area of order $p/g$. Linearizing its blackbody cooling around temperature $T$ gives the estimatewhere $c_p$ is specific heat capacity at constant pressure. This estimate omits details of wavelength-dependent radiative transfer, but captures faster relaxation in hotter and lower-pressure atmospheric layers.

For an integer-valued underlying with European call option prices $C(T,K)=\mathbb{E}(S_T-K{)}^{+}$, the second strike difference equals $\mathbb{P}(S_T=K)$. It is the discrete counterpart of recovering a payoff probability distribution from strike derivatives.

For a martingale with increments in $\{-1,0,1\}$, European call option prices satisfy $C(T+1,K)-C(T,K)=\frac{1}{2}{\sigma }^2(T,K)(C(T,K+1)-2C(T,K)+C(T,K-1))$. At positive-probability states, the variance and the upward/downward conditional transitions are determined by this identity; transitions at zero-probability states cannot be recovered.

The Mellin transform of call prices can be inverted along a vertical contour with real part $x_0>1$: $C(k)=\frac{1}{2\pi i}{\int }_{x_0-i\infty }^{x_0+i\infty }\mathbb{E}{e}^{z\xi }/(z(z-1)e^{(z-1)k})dz$. A finite exponential moment at $x_0$ and the quadratic denominator give absolute convergence.

A sequence $(x_n)$ in $\mathbb{R}/\mathbb{Z}$ is equidistributed if the limiting frequency in every half-open interval equals that interval's length. Equivalently, its empirical probability measures converge to normalized Lebesgue measure when tested against every continuous function.

For a bounded sequence $(u_n)$ in a Hilbert space, put $c_h={\mathrm{limsup}}_{N\to \infty }|N^{-1}{\sum }_{n=0}^{N-h-1}⟨u_{n+h},u_n⟩|$. If $H^{-1}{\sum }_{h=1}^H{c}_h\to 0$, then $N^{-1}{\sum }_{n=0}^{N-1}{u}_n\to 0$ in norm. Since the $c_h$ are bounded, it suffices that $(c_h)$ has convergence in density of a sequence to zero. The proof applies the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality to an average of shifted sums.

A continuous self-map of a compact metric space is uniquely ergodic when it has exactly one invariant Borel probability measure. An irrational rotation of the circle is uniquely ergodic: invariance multiplies its nonzero-index Fourier coefficients by nontrivial phases, forcing those coefficients to vanish. The Stone-Weierstrass theorem then identifies the invariant measure as normalized Lebesgue measure.

Cutting and stacking constructs measure-preserving transformations from towers of equal-measure levels. Cut a tower into equal-width subcolumns, add new spacer levels, and stack the resulting columns. Map each level to the one above by a measure-preserving identification; subsequent stages extend the partial map. When uncovered and top-level measures tend to zero, the limiting map is defined modulo null sets.

For a measurable transformation $T$, a measure is invariant if the pushforward measure equals the original measure, or equivalently $\mu (T^{-1}A)=\mu (A)$ for every measurable $A$. This is the measure used in a measure-preserving system.

For fixed positive integers $r,t$, a graph $G$ on $n$ vertices with $e(G)=(1-1/r+o(1))n^2/2$ and no balanced complete multipartite blow-up $K_{r+1}(t)$ contains an $r$-partite subgraph $H$ with $n-o(n)$ vertices, balanced classes of size $n/r+o(n)$, and minimum degree of a graph $\delta (H)=(1-1/r+o(1))n$.

One proof first removes a vanishing fraction of vertices of low degree of a vertex, finds a slowly growing $K_r(L)$ by the Erdős-Stone theorem, and assigns almost every remaining vertex to a root class in which it has fewer than $t$ neighbours of a vertex. After discarding a further vanishing fraction, a $K_{t,t}$ inside an assigned class would extend to $K_{r+1}(t)$ using the root classes. Thus internal edges and missing cross-class edges both number $o(n^2)$. Removing the vertices with unusually many missing cross-class edges gives the stated minimum degree of a graph.

An equivalence class collects all the set elements indistinguishable from a specified set element under an equivalence relation. For an equivalence relation $R$ on a set $X$, the precise definition isThe ambient set matters: a finite class for integer congruence restricted to $\{0,\dots ,8\}$ differs from the infinite residue class for the same integer congruence on all integers. We write $[x]$ when the equivalence relation and ambient set are clear.

In the finite modulo-three example,There are nine names $[x]$ but only three distinct equivalence classes. In particular, $3\in [0]$, whereas $[3]=[0]$: the first statement is membership of a set element; the second is equality of two sets.

For any equivalence relation on $X$, the essential rule isReflexivity puts $x$ in $[x{]}_R$, so the equivalence classes are nonempty and cover $X$. If two equivalence classes share $z$, the symmetric relation property and transitivity relate their defining elements through $z$; transitivity then makes their members coincide. Thus distinct equivalence classes are disjoint, giving a partition of a set. Conversely, declare two set elements equivalent when they belong to the same block of a partition of a set. The three relation properties follow immediately and its equivalence classes recover the blocks. ^[ref]

Two functions $f:A\to X$ and $g:B\to X$, whose domains lie in one ambient set, are equivalent modulo finite changes when $A△B$ is a finite set and the functions disagree at only finitely many points of $A\cap B$. The symmetric difference inclusion $A△C\subseteq (A△B)\cup (B△C)$ handles domains in a transitive chain. An exceptional set for values must also include points of $A\cap C$ absent from the middle domain $B$; these lie in the finite difference $A\setminus B$.

For fixed positive frequency and $n\ge 1$, the equatorial shallow-water dispersion relation has real zonal wavenumbers only ifBetween these values the zonal roots are complex, giving an evanescent response rather than freely propagating modes.

For epicyclic motion in a Keplerian shearing sheet, write $x-x_0=\mathrm{Re}(A{e}^{-i\Omega t})$. The energy of the radial harmonic oscillator per unit mass is $E_{\mathrm{epi}}={\Omega }^2|A{|}^2/2$. The full horizontal Jacobi energy in a shearing sheet also includes the negative guiding-center term $-3{\Omega }^2{x}_0^2/8$.