Atmospheric-pressure laser ionization (APLI) is an analytical technique used to generate and detect ions from analytes (compounds of interest) at or near atmospheric pressure, typically for the purpose of mass spectrometry. This method allows for the direct ionization of samples without the need for advanced vacuum systems or complex ionization conditions that are typical in traditional mass spectrometric techniques. **Key aspects of Atmospheric-pressure laser ionization include:** 1.

The terms "waves" and "instabilities from a neutral dynamo" refer to phenomena in astrophysical and geophysical contexts, particularly in the study of magnetic fields generated by fluid motions in electrically conducting fluids like plasmas or liquid metals. ### Waves In the context of a dynamo, "waves" typically refer to oscillatory phenomena in the magnetic and flow fields.

In the context of Wikipedia, a "stub" refers to a very short or incomplete article that provides minimal information on a subject. "Plasma physics stub" specifically would refer to a Wikipedia article focused on plasma physics that is considered a stub—meaning that it lacks sufficient detail, depth, or breadth of information. Plasma physics itself is the study of plasma, which is one of the four fundamental states of matter (alongside solid, liquid, and gas).

A Duoplasmatron is a type of ion source used primarily in the field of mass spectrometry and ion beam technology. It is designed to produce a well-defined beam of ions, often for applications such as material analysis, ion implantation, and surface modification. The Duoplasmatron operates by creating a plasma from a gas (typically a noble gas like argon) using an electric arc. This plasma consists of charged particles, including ions and electrons.

F2 propagation refers to a type of radio wave propagation that occurs in the high-frequency (HF) band, particularly in the ionosphere. The F2 layer is the highest region of the ionosphere, typically found at altitudes between about 200 to 400 kilometers (approximately 124 to 248 miles) above the Earth's surface. It is characterized by high electron densities, which can facilitate long-distance radio communications.

The International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) is a standard model used to describe the ionosphere, which is a region of Earth's upper atmosphere that is ionized by solar radiation. The ionosphere plays a crucial role in radio communication, navigation, and satellite operations, as it affects the propagation of radio waves and the performance of satellite systems.

The ionospheric dynamo region refers to an area in the Earth's ionosphere where electric currents are generated due to the interaction between the Earth's magnetic field and the ionosphere’s electrically conductive plasma. This region is vital for understanding a variety of geophysical processes, including atmospheric dynamics, space weather, and radio wave propagation.

Electrostatic spray ionization (ESI) is a soft ionization technique commonly used in mass spectrometry to produce ions from liquid samples. ESI is particularly effective for analyzing large biomolecules, such as proteins, peptides, and nucleic acids, as well as small organic molecules. In the ESI process, a liquid sample is typically introduced into a nebulizer, where it is atomized into a fine mist of charged droplets through the application of a high voltage.

Extractive electrospray ionization (EESI) is an ionization technique used in mass spectrometry that allows for the analysis of liquid samples directly without the need for extensive sample preparation. It is particularly useful for analyzing samples in their native liquid state, making it a powerful tool for various fields, including chemistry, biology, and environmental science. In EESI, a sample solution is introduced to an electrospray setup where a high-voltage electric field is applied.

Fast Atom Bombardment (FAB) is a technique used in mass spectrometry for the ionization of samples, particularly those that are non-volatile and thermally labile. Unlike traditional ionization methods, FAB allows the analysis of larger biomolecules, such as proteins, peptides, and other complex organic compounds. In the FAB process, a sample is typically dissolved in a suitable solvent and then bombarded with a beam of energetic atoms, often xenon or argon.

Laser ablation electrospray ionization (LAESI) is an advanced analytical technique used primarily in mass spectrometry for the direct analysis of materials. This method combines two powerful techniques: laser ablation and electrospray ionization, allowing for the rapid and sensitive analysis of solid and semi-solid samples.

Laser diode thermal desorption (LDTD) is a technique used primarily in analytical chemistry and mass spectrometry for the desorption and ionization of sample analytes. This method utilizes the focused energy from a laser diode to heat a sample material, causing the analytes to desorb from the surface of a solid or liquid matrix into the gas phase. ### Key Components of LDTD: 1. **Laser Diode**: A laser device that emits light at specific wavelengths.

Hashem Rafii Tabar is an Iranian individual who gained international attention due to his reported sentencing in 2021. He was sentenced to death by the Iranian judiciary for alleged blasphemy and for promoting a version of Islam that is said to be at odds with traditional Islamic beliefs. His case garnered significant media coverage and sparked discussions about freedom of expression and religious intolerance in Iran.

Yousef Sobouti is an Iranian astrophysicist known for his work in the field of astrophysics and cosmology. He has contributed to various areas of research, including the study of stellar dynamics and the structure of the universe. Sobouti is recognized for his theoretical contributions and is associated with academic and research institutions in Iran.

Iraq's biological weapons program has been a subject of significant international concern, especially during the 1980s and 1990s. Under the leadership of Saddam Hussein, Iraq developed a biological weapons capability as part of its broader military strategy.

Matrix-assisted ionization generally refers to a technique used in mass spectrometry, particularly in matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI). MALDI is a soft ionization method that allows for the analysis of large biomolecules, such as proteins, peptides, nucleic acids, and polymers, by converting them into ions without causing significant fragmentation.

Matrix-assisted laser desorption electrospray ionization (MALDI-ESI) is a mass spectrometry technique that combines two powerful ionization methods: matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization (MALDI) and electrospray ionization (ESI). This hybrid technique is utilized to analyze a wide range of biomolecules, including proteins, peptides, and other large biomolecular complexes.

Paper spray ionization is a novel mass spectrometry technique used for the direct analysis of various types of samples, including biological fluids, pharmaceuticals, and environmental samples. It is particularly advantageous for its simplicity, speed, and the ability to analyze samples with minimal preparation. In this method, a piece of absorbent paper is used as the substrate for the sample. Here’s how the process generally works: 1. **Sample Application**: The sample is applied onto the surface of the paper.

Spark ionization is a process that involves the formation of ions in a gas when it is exposed to a strong electric field, often resulting in the generation of a spark. This phenomenon occurs when the electric field strength exceeds a certain threshold, known as the breakdown voltage, causing the gas molecules to become ionized.

Ionizing radiation detectors are devices designed to measure and detect ionizing radiation, which includes particles and high-energy electromagnetic waves that have enough energy to remove tightly bound electrons from atoms, thereby ionizing them. Ionizing radiation includes alpha particles, beta particles, gamma rays, and X-rays. The working principle of these detectors typically involves the interaction of ionizing radiation with matter, which generates ion pairs (electron and positive ion) in a sensing medium.