Nuclear physics is the branch of physics that deals with the study of atomic nuclei, their constituents (protons and neutrons), and the interactions that occur between them. It encompasses a variety of topics, including: 1. **Structure of the Nucleus**: Understanding the arrangement of protons and neutrons within an atomic nucleus, including models that describe nuclear stability and the forces that hold the nucleus together (strong nuclear force).
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Isotopes are different forms of the same element that have the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons in their atomic nuclei. This difference in neutron count leads to variations in atomic mass, but the chemical properties of the isotopes remain largely similar because they have the same electron configuration.
Environmental isotopes are variants of chemical elements that contain the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons, resulting in different atomic masses. These isotopes can serve as important tools in environmental science, ecology, geochemistry, and other fields, as they can provide valuable information about various environmental processes, historical climate conditions, and the movement of water and other substances in the environment. Isotopes can be stable or unstable (radioactive).
Carbon-13 (C-13) is a stable isotope of carbon, which has an atomic mass of approximately 13 atomic mass units (amu). It consists of six protons and seven neutrons in its nucleus, distinguishing it from the more common carbon isotope, Carbon-12 (C-12), which has six protons and six neutrons. Carbon-13 makes up about 1.1% of all naturally occurring carbon in the environment.
Carbon-14 (C-14) is a radioactive isotope of carbon. It is formed in the upper atmosphere when cosmic rays interact with nitrogen-14 (N-14) in a process known as cosmic ray spallation. Carbon-14 has a half-life of about 5,730 years, which means that it takes this amount of time for half of a given sample of C-14 to decay into nitrogen-14 through beta decay.
Chlorine-36 (\(^{36}\text{Cl}\)) is a stable isotope of chlorine, which is a chemical element with the symbol Cl and atomic number 17.
Deuterium is a stable isotope of hydrogen, represented by the symbol \( \text{D} \) or \( ^2\text{H} \). It contains one proton and one neutron in its nucleus, giving it a mass number of 2, compared to the more common hydrogen isotope, protium, which has no neutrons. Deuterium occurs naturally in small amounts in water, comprising about 0.0156% of all hydrogen in the ocean.
Environmental radioactivity refers to the presence and concentration of radioactive materials in the environment, including air, water, soil, and living organisms. This radioactivity is a natural phenomenon resulting from the decay of radioactive isotopes that are found in the earth's crust, cosmic radiation from outer space, and human-made sources. **Sources of Environmental Radioactivity:** 1. **Natural Sources:** - **Cosmic Rays:** High-energy particles from outer space that contribute to background radiation.
Extinct isotopes of superheavy elements refer to isotopes of elements that lie beyond the currently known periodic table. Superheavy elements are those with atomic numbers greater than 103 (lawrencium) and are typically synthesized in laboratories through nuclear reactions. These elements are often highly unstable, with very short half-lives, leading them to decay rapidly into lighter elements.
Oxygen-17 (³¹₆O) is a stable isotope of oxygen. It contains 8 neutrons and 9 protons in its nucleus, giving it a mass number of 17. In naturally occurring oxygen, about 0.037% is this isotope, making it relatively rare compared to the more common isotopes, Oxygen-16 (the most abundant) and Oxygen-18.
Oxygen-18 (⁴O) is a stable isotope of oxygen that is characterized by having 8 protons and 10 neutrons in its nucleus. It is one of three naturally occurring isotopes of oxygen, the others being Oxygen-16 (⁴O) and Oxygen-17 (⁴O). Oxygen-18 is less abundant than Oxygen-16, making up about 0.2% of naturally occurring oxygen.
Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen, denoted as \( ^3H \) or T. It contains one proton and two neutrons in its nucleus, making it heavier than the most common hydrogen isotope, protium (\( ^1H \)), which has only one proton and no neutrons. Tritium is produced naturally in the atmosphere through interactions between cosmic rays and nitrogen.
Δ¹³C (delta carbon-13) is a measure used in the field of stable isotope geochemistry to express the ratio of carbon isotopes, specifically the stable isotopes carbon-12 (¹²C) and carbon-13 (¹³C). The delta notation is used to give the relative difference in the isotopic composition of a sample compared to a standard reference material.
Δ¹⁸O (Delta oxygen-18) is a measure of the ratio of stable isotopes of oxygen, specifically the ratio of oxygen-18 (¹⁸O) to oxygen-16 (¹⁶O). It is expressed as a difference in parts per thousand (‰) compared to a standard reference material, typically Vienna Standard Mean Ocean Water (VSMOW).
Δ⁻⁴S (delta sulfur-34) is a notation used in geochemistry and environmental science to express the isotopic composition of sulfur in a sample relative to a standard. Specifically, it refers to the ratio of sulfur-34 (¹⁴S) to sulfur-32 (¹³²S) isotopes.
Actinium (Ac) has several isotopes, with the most notable being Actinium-227 and Actinium-228. Here are some details about its isotopes: 1. **Actinium-227 (Ac-227)**: - Half-life: About 21.77 years. - Decay mode: It decays to radium-223 via alpha decay.
Actinium-225 (Ac-225) is a radioactive isotope of the element actinium, which is part of the actinide series in the periodic table. It has a half-life of approximately 10 days, making it a relatively short-lived isotope. Ac-225 is important in the field of nuclear medicine, particularly in targeted alpha-particle therapy (TAT), which is a form of cancer treatment.
Aluminium has several isotopes, but the most notable and stable isotopes are: 1. **Aluminium-26 (\(^26\text{Al}\))**: This is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 730,000 years. It is produced through cosmic ray interactions and is significant in astrophysical studies and in dating geological formations.
Aluminium-26 (often written as \(^{26}\text{Al}\)) is a radioactive isotope of aluminium. It has a nucleon count of 26, consisting of 13 protons and 13 neutrons. \(^{26}\text{Al}\) is notable for its half-life of about 717,000 years, which allows it to be used in various scientific studies.
Americium (Am) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 95, and it has several isotopes. The most significant isotopes of americium are: 1. **Americium-241 (Am-241)**: This is the most commonly used isotope of americium. It has a half-life of about 432.2 years and is used in smoke detectors, certain types of radiation sources, and in some industrial applications.
Americium-241 (Am-241) is a radioactive isotope of the element americium, which is part of the actinide series in the periodic table. Americium is a synthetic element, first produced in 1944 by Glenn T. Seaborg and his team at the University of California, Berkeley. Am-241 has a half-life of approximately 432.2 years, meaning it takes that amount of time for half of a sample of this isotope to decay.
Antimony (Sb) has several isotopes, but the most notable ones are: 1. **\(^{121}\text{Sb}\)**: This is the most stable and abundant isotope of antimony, accounting for about 57% of natural antimony. It has a half-life that is effectively stable as it doesn't undergo radioactive decay. 2. **\(^{123}\text{Sb}\)**: This isotope makes up about 42% of natural antimony and is also stable.
Argon has several isotopes, but the most common ones are: 1. **Argon-36** (¹⁶Ar) - This is a stable isotope and constitutes about 0.34% of natural argon. 2. **Argon-38** (³⁸Ar) - Another stable isotope, making up about 0.06% of natural argon.
Arsenic has several isotopes, with the most notable being: 1. **Arsenic-75 (As-75)**: This is the only stable isotope of arsenic and is the most abundant, making up about 100% of naturally occurring arsenic. 2. **Radioactive Isotopes**: Arsenic has several radioactive isotopes, which are not stable and decay over time.
Astatine is a radioactive element with the atomic number 85. It has several isotopes, most of which are unstable. The known isotopes of astatine range from Astatine-210 to Astatine-218, and they are primarily categorized by their mass numbers. The most significant isotopes include: 1. **Astatine-210 (At-210)**: This isotope has a half-life of about 8.
Barium has several isotopes, which are variants of the element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The most stable and common isotopes of barium are: 1. **Barium-130 (Ba-130)**: This is the most abundant isotope, comprising about 7.1% of natural barium. 2. **Barium-132 (Ba-132)**: This isotope is also stable and is about 0.
Berkelium (Bk) is a synthetic element with atomic number 97 and is part of the actinide series. It has several isotopes, the most notable of which are: 1. **Berkelium-247 (Bk-247)**: This is the most stable and commonly referenced isotope of berkelium, with a half-life of approximately 1,380 days (about 3.8 years).
Beryllium has several isotopes, but the most significant ones are: 1. **Beryllium-7 (Be-7)**: This isotope has a mass number of 7 and is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 53.1 days. It is produced in the atmosphere through the interaction of cosmic rays with nitrogen and oxygen. Beryllium-7 decays by beta decay into lithium-7.
Beryllium-10 (\(^10\text{Be}\)) is a radioactive isotope of beryllium, which is a chemical element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4. \(^10\text{Be}\) is formed in the atmosphere as a result of cosmic ray interactions with oxygen and nitrogen, and it can also be produced through various nuclear reactions.
Bismuth (Bi) has several isotopes, but the most notable ones are: 1. **Bismuth-209 (Bi-209)**: This is the most stable and abundant isotope of bismuth, constituting nearly 100% of natural bismuth. It has a half-life of about 1.9 x 10^19 years, making it effectively stable for practical purposes.
Bismuth-209 is an isotope of the element bismuth, which has the chemical symbol Bi and an atomic number of 83. Bismuth-209 is notable because it is the most stable isotope of bismuth, with a half-life of about 1.9 × 10^19 years, making it extremely long-lived compared to other isotopes of bismuth.
Bohrium (Bh) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 107. It was first synthesized in 1981 and is named after the physicist Niels Bohr. Currently, several isotopes of bohrium have been produced, but they are all radioactive and have relatively short half-lives. The most notable isotopes of bohrium include: 1. **Bohrium-262 (Bh-262)**: This isotope has a half-life of about 5.6 milliseconds.
Boron has two stable isotopes and several unstable isotopes. The two stable isotopes of boron are: 1. **Boron-10 (¹⁰B)**: This isotope has 5 protons and 5 neutrons, and it constitutes about 19.9% of naturally occurring boron. It is often used in applications such as neutron capture therapy for treating cancer and in various nuclear applications.
Bromine has several isotopes, but the two most notable ones are: 1. **Bromine-79 (Br-79)**: This is the most stable and abundant isotope of bromine, making up about 50.5% of naturally occurring bromine. It has a half-life that is stable (not radioactive), and it consists of 35 protons and 44 neutrons.
Cadmium (Cd) has several isotopes, with the most stable and common ones being: 1. **Cadmium-106 (Cd-106)**: This isotope is stable and has a natural abundance of about 1.25%. 2. **Cadmium-108 (Cd-108)**: Also stable, this isotope has an abundance of about 0.89%. 3. **Cadmium-110 (Cd-110)**: Another stable isotope, it comprises roughly 12.
Caesium (Cs) has several isotopes, with the most stable and commonly known ones being: 1. **Cs-133**: This is the most stable isotope of caesium and is used as the standard for the definition of the second in the International System of Units (SI). Cs-133 has a half-life of stable, meaning it does not undergo radioactive decay.
Caesium-137 (Cs-137) is a radioactive isotope of the element cesium. It has a half-life of about 30.1 years and is produced as a byproduct of nuclear fission in reactors and during the decay of certain isotopes, such as in the fallout from nuclear weapons testing or nuclear accidents. Cs-137 emits beta particles and gamma radiation, making it a source of ionizing radiation.
Calcium has several isotopes, which are variants of the element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The isotopes of calcium are: 1. **Calcium-40 (⁴⁰Ca)** - The most abundant and stable isotope, making up about 97% of naturally occurring calcium. It has 20 protons and 20 neutrons.
Calcium-48 (\(^{48}\text{Ca}\)) is an isotope of the element calcium, which has the atomic number 20. This specific isotope has 20 protons and 28 neutrons, giving it a mass number of 48. Calcium-48 is one of the most stable isotopes of calcium, with a very long half-life, and it is of particular interest in nuclear physics and astrophysics due to its unique properties.
Californium (Cf) has several isotopes, of which the most notable are: 1. **Californium-252 (Cf-252)**: This isotope is one of the most prominent, with a half-life of about 2.645 years. It is a powerful neutron emitter and is used in various applications, including neutron radiography, chemotherapy, and as a neutron source in scientific research.
Carbon has three main isotopes: carbon-12 (\(^{12}\text{C}\)), carbon-13 (\(^{13}\text{C}\)), and carbon-14 (\(^{14}\text{C}\)). Each isotope has the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons, leading to differences in their atomic masses.
Carbon-12 (\(^12C\)) is a stable isotope of carbon, which is one of the fundamental elements in chemistry and biology. It is the most abundant carbon isotope, accounting for about 98.9% of all naturally occurring carbon.
Fractionation of carbon isotopes in oxygenic photosynthesis refers to the differential uptake and incorporation of carbon isotopes (\(^{12}C\) and \(^{13}C\)) by photosynthetic organisms, primarily plants and cyanobacteria, during the process of converting carbon dioxide (CO2) into organic carbon compounds using sunlight.
Isotopically pure diamond refers to a diamond that is composed entirely of one stable isotope of carbon, typically carbon-12 (C-12). Natural diamonds contain a mixture of carbon isotopes, mainly carbon-12 and carbon-13, with trace amounts of carbon-14 present due to cosmic radiation.
Cerium (Ce) is a chemical element with atomic number 58 and belongs to the lanthanide series. It has several isotopes, which are variants of the element with the same number of protons but a different number of neutrons. The isotopes of cerium are: 1. **^136Ce** - Stable isotope with 78 neutrons. 2. **^138Ce** - Stable isotope with 80 neutrons.
Chlorine has two stable isotopes, which are: 1. **Chlorine-35 (¹⁷Cl)**: This isotope has 17 neutrons and is the more abundant of the two, making up about 76% of naturally occurring chlorine. 2. **Chlorine-37 (¹⁹Cl)**: This isotope has 20 neutrons and accounts for about 24% of natural chlorine.
Chlorine-37 (\(^{37}\text{Cl}\)) is an isotope of chlorine, which is a chemical element with the symbol Cl and atomic number 17. It has a nuclear mass number of 37, meaning it contains 17 protons (which is characteristic of all chlorine atoms) and 20 neutrons (since 37 - 17 = 20).
Chromium has several isotopes, which are variants of the element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The most notable isotopes of chromium are: 1. **Chromium-50 (⁵⁰Cr)**: This is the most abundant isotope, making up about 4.3% of natural chromium. It has 24 protons and 26 neutrons.
Cobalt has several isotopes, but the most notable ones are: 1. **Cobalt-59 (^59Co)** - This is the only stable isotope of cobalt, making up nearly 100% of naturally occurring cobalt. It has 27 protons and 32 neutrons. 2. **Cobalt-60 (^60Co)** - This is a radioactive isotope with a half-life of about 5.27 years.
Cobalt-60 is a radioactive isotope of cobalt, denoted as \(^{60}\text{Co}\). It has important applications in various fields, particularly in medicine and industry. Here are some key points about Cobalt-60: 1. **Radioactive Properties**: Cobalt-60 undergoes beta decay to become nickel-60, emitting gamma radiation in the process. Its half-life is approximately 5.
Copernicium (Cn) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 112. It is a member of the group 10 elements in the periodic table. As of now, there are currently a few known isotopes of copernicium, but all are highly unstable and radioactive. The most notable isotopes of copernicium include: 1. **Copernicium-277 (\(^{277}\)Cn)**: This isotope has a half-life of about 0.
Copper has two stable isotopes: \( ^{63}Cu \) and \( ^{65}Cu \). 1. **\( ^{63}Cu \)**: This isotope has 29 protons and 34 neutrons, comprising about 69% of naturally occurring copper. Its atomic mass is approximately 62.93 u.
Copper-64 (^64Cu) is a radioactive isotope of copper. It has a total of 29 protons and 35 neutrons in its nucleus. Copper-64 is notable for its applications in both nuclear medicine and scientific research. ### Key Characteristics: - **Half-life**: The half-life of Copper-64 is approximately 12.7 hours, which makes it suitable for certain medical applications where a shorter-lived isotope is beneficial.
Curium (Cm) is an actinide element with atomic number 96. It has several isotopes, with the most notable being: 1. **Curium-242 (Cm-242)**: This is the most stable isotope of curium and has a half-life of about 162.8 days. It decays primarily by alpha emission. 2. **Curium-244 (Cm-244)**: This isotope has a half-life of approximately 18.
Darmstadtium is a synthetic element with the symbol Ds and atomic number 110. It is part of the transactinide series of elements and was first synthesized in 1994. As of now, darmstadtium has no stable isotopes; all of its isotopes are radioactive.
Dubnium (Db) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 105. It has several known isotopes, most of which are highly radioactive and have relatively short half-lives. The most studied isotopes of dubnium include: 1. **Dubnium-263 (Db-263)**: This is the most stable isotope of dubnium, with a half-life of about 34 seconds. It decays primarily through alpha decay.
Dysprosium has several isotopes, but the most notable ones are: 1. **Dysprosium-156 (Dy-156)**: This is the most abundant stable isotope of dysprosium, making up about 5.3% of natural dysprosium. 2. **Dysprosium-158 (Dy-158)**: Another stable isotope, it accounts for approximately 0.1% of natural dysprosium.
Einsteinium (Es) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 99. It has several isotopes, the most notable of which are: 1. **Einsteinium-253 (Es-253)**: This is the most stable isotope of einsteinium, with a half-life of about 20.5 days. It is produced in nuclear reactors and is used in research.
Erbium (Er) has several isotopes, with the most stable and common isotopes being: 1. **Erbium-162 (Er-162)**: This is the most abundant stable isotope, comprising about 33.5% of natural erbium. 2. **Erbium-164 (Er-164)**: This is another stable isotope, making up about 1.6% of natural erbium.
Europium (Eu) has a number of isotopes, but the most significant ones are Europium-151 and Europium-153, which are the only naturally occurring isotopes. 1. **Europium-151 (Eu-151)**: This isotope has an atomic mass of approximately 150.9198 u and has a natural abundance of about 47.8%. It is stable and does not undergo radioactive decay.
Fermium (Fm) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 100. It is part of the actinide series in the periodic table. Isotopes of fermium are all radioactive, as fermium has no stable isotopes. The most notable isotopes of fermium include: 1. **Fermium-257 (Fm-257)**: This is the most stable isotope of fermium, with a half-life of about 100.5 days.
Flerovium (Fl) is a synthetic element with atomic number 114, and it is part of the superheavy elements in the periodic table. As of my last knowledge update in October 2023, there are very few known isotopes of flerovium, primarily because it is extremely unstable and has a short half-life.
Fluorine has one stable isotope, which is fluorine-19 (¹⁹F). This isotope accounts for nearly all naturally occurring fluorine. Fluorine-19 has 9 protons and 10 neutrons in its nucleus. In addition to the stable isotope, fluorine has several radioactive isotopes, though they are not found in significant amounts in nature.
Fluorine-18 is a radioactive isotope of fluorine, which is a chemical element with the symbol F and atomic number 9. Fluorine-18 has a mass number of 18, indicating it has 9 protons and 9 neutrons in its nucleus. This isotope is notable for its applications in positron emission tomography (PET), a medical imaging technique. Fluorine-18 is produced in a cyclotron through the irradiation of oxygen-18.
Francium is a highly radioactive alkali metal with the symbol Fr and atomic number 87. It is one of the least stable elements on the periodic table, and it has no stable isotopes. The isotopes of francium are all radioactive, and the most commonly discussed isotopes are: 1. **Francium-223 (Fr-223)**: This is the most stable and the most naturally occurring isotope of francium, with a half-life of about 22 minutes.
Gadolinium (Gd) is a lanthanide element with atomic number 64 and has several isotopes. The most common isotopes of gadolinium include: 1. **Gadolinium-152 (Gd-152)**: This isotope has a natural abundance of about 0.14% and is stable. 2. **Gadolinium-154 (Gd-154)**: A stable isotope with a natural abundance of approximately 2.17%.
Gallium has two stable isotopes, which are: 1. **Gallium-69 (¹⁶⁹Ga)**: This isotope has 39 neutrons and is the more abundant of the two stable isotopes, comprising about 60.11% of natural gallium. 2. **Gallium-71 (¹⁷¹Ga)**: This isotope has 41 neutrons and makes up about 39.89% of naturally occurring gallium.
Germanium (Ge) has several isotopes, with the most stable and common ones being: 1. **Germanium-70 (¹⁷⁰Ge)**: This isotope has 32 neutrons and is stable. 2. **Germanium-72 (¹⁷²Ge)**: Also stable, this isotope has 34 neutrons. 3. **Germanium-73 (¹⁷³Ge)**: Another stable isotope with 35 neutrons.
Gold (Au) has a few naturally occurring isotopes, the most common of which is gold-197 (^197Au). This isotope is stable and makes up nearly all naturally occurring gold. Gold-197 has an atomic mass of approximately 196.96657 u. In addition to ^197Au, there are several radioactive isotopes of gold, though they are not found in nature and are typically produced in laboratories or through nuclear reactions.
Gold-198 (Au-198) is a radioactive isotope of gold. It has a mass number of 198, meaning it contains 118 neutrons and 79 protons in its nucleus. Au-198 is primarily produced through the neutron activation of gold-197, which is the most stable and abundant isotope of gold. **Key Characteristics of Gold-198:** 1.
Hafnium (Hf) is a chemical element with the atomic number 72 and has several isotopes. The isotopes of hafnium are distinguished by the number of neutrons in their nuclei, and they can be either stable or radioactive. Here are the key isotopes of hafnium: ### Stable Isotopes: 1. **Hafnium-174 (Hf-174)**: The most abundant stable isotope, making up about 32.5% of natural hafnium.
Hassium (Hs) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 108. It is a member of the transactinide series of elements and is classified in Group 8 of the periodic table. As of my last knowledge update in October 2023, hassium has a few known isotopes, with all of them being radioactive.
Holmium (Ho) has one stable isotope, holmium-165 (Ho-165), which makes up nearly all naturally occurring holmium. In addition to this stable isotope, holmium has several radioactive isotopes, with varying half-lives. The most notable radioactive isotopes of holmium include: 1. **Holmium-163 (Ho-163)** - This isotope is used in various applications, including neutron capture therapy and as a source of gamma radiation.
Hydrogen has three main isotopes, which vary based on the number of neutrons present in the nucleus: 1. **Protium (^1H)**: This is the most abundant isotope of hydrogen, consisting of one proton and no neutrons. It is represented as \(^1H\) or simply H. 2. **Deuterium (^2H or D)**: This isotope contains one proton and one neutron, giving it a mass number of two.
Indium has two stable isotopes: \(^{113}\text{In}\) and \(^{115}\text{In}\). 1. **\(^{113}\text{In}\)** - This isotope has a natural abundance of about 4.3%. It is a stable isotope, meaning it does not undergo radioactive decay. 2. **\(^{115}\text{In}\)** - This isotope is the most abundant, accounting for about 95.
Indium-111 (^{111}In) is a radioactive isotope of indium. It has a half-life of about 2.8 days and decays primarily via electron capture to stable tin-111 (^{111}Sn). Indium-111 is of significant interest in the field of nuclear medicine, particularly for its applications in diagnostic imaging and targeted therapy.
Iodine has several isotopes, the most notable of which are iodine-127, iodine-129, and iodine-131. 1. **Iodine-127 (¹²⁷I)**: This is the most stable and abundant isotope of iodine, making up about 100% of naturally occurring iodine. It has a half-life that is effectively infinite for practical purposes and is non-radioactive.
Iodine-123 (I-123) is a radioactive isotope of iodine that is commonly used in medical imaging and diagnostic procedures, particularly in the field of nuclear medicine. It has a half-life of approximately 13 hours, which makes it suitable for use in imaging studies because it decays quickly enough to reduce the patient's exposure to radiation while still allowing sufficient time for imaging procedures.
Iodine-129 (\(^{129}\text{I}\)) is a radioactive isotope of iodine. It has a half-life of approximately 15.7 million years, making it a long-lived isotope.
Iodine-131 (I-131) is a radioisotope of iodine, which is a chemical element with the symbol I and atomic number 53. I-131 has a half-life of about 8 days, which means that it takes approximately 8 days for half of a given quantity of the isotope to decay. This decay produces beta and gamma radiation.
An "iodine pit" is not a commonly used term in scientific literature or general discussions, so it may refer to a few different concepts depending on the context. However, the term could potentially be associated with various topics, such as: 1. **Iodine in Geology**: In geological contexts, "iodine pit" might refer to a location where iodine is extracted or found, often associated with certain types of mineral deposits.
Iofetamine (chemical name: **iodine-123 iofetamine**) is a radiopharmaceutical used primarily in the field of nuclear medicine for imaging of the brain. It is a specific tracer for assessing cerebral perfusion, which refers to the flow of blood to the brain tissue.
Iridium has several isotopes, with the two most stable and naturally occurring ones being: 1. **Iridium-191 (Ir-191)**: This isotope has a half-life of about 19.17 hours and decays to stable osmium-191. It is a product of the decay of heavier elements and is not found in significant amounts in nature.
Iridium-192 (Ir-192) is a radioactive isotope of the element iridium, which has the atomic number 77. It is part of the platinum group of metals and has various applications due to its radioactive properties. Iridium-192 is produced through the neutron activation of iridium-191, which is a stable isotope. ### Key Characteristics: - **Half-life:** Iridium-192 has a half-life of approximately 73.
Iron has several isotopes, which are variants of the element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The most stable and commonly occurring isotopes of iron are: 1. **Iron-54 (\(^{54}Fe\))**: This is the most abundant stable isotope, making up about 5.8% of natural iron.
Iron-55 (Fe-55) is a radioactive isotope of iron. It has a nuclear mass number of 55, meaning it has 26 protons and 29 neutrons in its nucleus. Iron-55 is produced as a decay product of manganese-55 and can also be formed in nuclear reactions. The half-life of Iron-55 is about 2.
Iron-56 (Fe-56) is a stable isotope of iron, which is one of the most abundant elements in the universe and a key component of many materials found on Earth. Isotopes of an element have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. For Iron-56, it has 26 protons and 30 neutrons, giving it a total atomic mass of approximately 56 atomic mass units (amu).
Krypton (Kr) is a noble gas with atomic number 36. It has several isotopes, which are variants of the element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The most notable isotopes of krypton include: 1. **Krypton-78 (Kr-78)**: This isotope has 42 neutrons and is stable. 2. **Krypton-80 (Kr-80)**: This stable isotope has 44 neutrons.
Krypton-85 (Kr-85) is a radioactive isotope of the element krypton, which is a noble gas. It has a mass number of 85, meaning it has 36 protons and 49 neutrons in its nucleus. Krypton-85 is produced naturally in the atmosphere through the interaction of cosmic rays with stable krypton isotopes and is also released into the environment from certain human activities, primarily from nuclear reactors and radiological applications.
Lanthanum (La) has a few isotopes, but it has only one stable isotope: lanthanum-138 (¹³⁸La). This isotope accounts for nearly all naturally occurring lanthanum. In addition to the stable isotope, lanthanum has several radioactive isotopes. These isotopes include: 1. **Lanthanum-137 (¹³⁷La)**: A beta-emitting isotope with a half-life of about 6.
Lawrencium (Lr) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 103, and it is part of the actinide series. Due to its instability and short half-life, isotopes of lawrencium are not found naturally and have been produced in laboratories.
Lead has four stable isotopes and several unstable (radioactive) isotopes. The four stable isotopes of lead are: 1. **Lead-204 (\(^{204}\)Pb)**: This isotope has 82 protons and 122 neutrons. It is the least abundant stable isotope of lead. 2. **Lead-206 (\(^{206}\)Pb)**: This isotope has 82 protons and 124 neutrons.
Lithium has several isotopes, but the three most notable ones are: 1. **Lithium-6 (\(^6Li\))**: This isotope has three protons and three neutrons. It makes up about 7.5% of naturally occurring lithium. \(^6Li\) is known for its applications in nuclear fusion and as a coolant in nuclear reactors.
Livermorium (Lv) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 116. It belongs to the group of elements known as the post-transition metals. As of my last knowledge update in October 2021, livermorium has a limited number of known isotopes. The most stable and notable isotopes of livermorium are: 1. **Livermorium-293 (Lv-293)**: This isotope has been produced and has a half-life of approximately 60 milliseconds.
Lutetium (Lu) is a chemical element with the atomic number 71 and is part of the lanthanide series. It has several isotopes, but the most notable ones are as follows: 1. **Lutetium-175 (Lu-175)**: This is the most stable and abundant isotope of lutetium, making up about 97.4% of natural lutetium.
Magnesium has several isotopes, with the most notable being: 1. **Magnesium-24 (²⁴Mg)**: This is the most abundant isotope, making up about 79% of natural magnesium. It has 12 neutrons and is stable. 2. **Magnesium-25 (²⁵Mg)**: This isotope constitutes about 10% of natural magnesium. It has 13 neutrons and is also stable.
Manganese has several isotopes, with the most common being ^55Mn, which is stable. In total, there are 26 known isotopes of manganese, ranging from ^46Mn to ^75Mn. Here are some key points regarding manganese isotopes: 1. **Stable Isotope**: - **^55Mn**: The only stable isotope of manganese, making up nearly all natural manganese found in the environment.
Meitnerium (Mt) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 109 and is classified as a transactinide element in the periodic table. It is named in honor of physicist Lise Meitner. Due to its short half-life and the limited amount produced, there are only a few known isotopes of meitnerium.
Mendelevium (Md) is a synthetic element with the atomic number 101, and it is a member of the actinide series in the periodic table. As of my last update in October 2023, mendelevium has no stable isotopes. The known isotopes of mendelevium are all radioactive, and they have relatively short half-lives.
Mercury has several isotopes, which are varieties of mercury atoms that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons. The most stable and commonly occurring isotopes of mercury are: 1. **Mercury-196 (²⁰⁶Hg)**: This is the most abundant isotope, making up about 30.6% of naturally occurring mercury.
Molybdenum (Mo) has several isotopes, which are variations of the element that contain different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei. The most stable and naturally occurring isotopes of molybdenum include: 1. **Molybdenum-92 (^92Mo)**: This isotope has 42 protons and 50 neutrons and is the most abundant isotope of molybdenum, making up about 14.8% of natural molybdenum.
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Nuclear physics is basically just the study of the complex outcomes of weak interaction + quantum chromodynamics.