Past exam of the short options paper shared by Parts A and B of the physics course of the University of Oxford / 2019 / S12 / 1

The central dogma of molecular biology concerns sequence information: DNA can be copied by DNA replication; transcription makes RNA from DNA; and translation makes a protein from messenger RNA. The familiar $\mathrm{DNA}\to \mathrm{RNA}\to \mathrm{protein}$ diagram is not an assertion that all information transfer is one-way: reverse transcription and RNA replication are compatible with the dogma. Its key exclusion is transfer of a protein's amino-acid sequence back into nucleic-acid sequence by a general templating mechanism.

DNA is a polymer of deoxyribonucleotides with a sugar–phosphate backbone joined by phosphodiester bonds. Its usual DNA double helix contains antiparallel strands with complementary bases, adenine paired with thymine and guanine with cytosine. The base sequence stores inherited information; complementary pairing supports accurate copying and repair. A strand has distinct $5^{\prime }$ and $3^{\prime }$ ends, and ordinary chain synthesis extends the $3^{\prime }$ end. Packaging into chromosomes compacts and regulates access to the genetic material.

RNA uses ribose, with a $2^{\prime }$ hydroxyl group, and uracil in place of thymine. It is usually single-stranded but forms extensive paired secondary and tertiary structures. Messenger RNA conveys coding information, transfer RNA couples codons to amino acids, and ribosomal RNA provides both structural organization and catalysis within the ribosome. Other RNA molecules regulate expression or catalyse reactions. Thus RNA is not merely a passive intermediate.

Proteins are polypeptides of amino acids linked by peptide bonds, read from an amino terminus to a carboxyl terminus. Their primary sequence guides protein folding; backbone hydrogen bonds organize helices and sheets, while hydrophobic, electrostatic and other interactions produce tertiary and sometimes quaternary protein structure. Their functions include catalysis, transport, signalling, mechanical support and molecular movement. Sequence alone does not guarantee function: folding, modifications, partners and cellular conditions matter. During translation, a ribosome reads successive triplet codons in messenger RNA, with charged transfer RNA molecules supplying the corresponding amino acids; initiation and termination define the reading frame.