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Occupation and the two-dimensional Fermi energy. For an independent single-particle state, the Fermi-Dirac distribution isThe chemical potential enforces the chosen mean particle number through $N={\sum }_{j}n({\epsilon }_j)$, including spin states in the sum. It is common to all states in particle-exchange equilibrium and must generally change with temperature or field when the total mean number is held fixed. At zero temperature, the distribution becomes a Heaviside step function at the Fermi energy.

Let the sample area be $\mathcal{S}$ and let $g_s$ be its internal spin spin degeneracy. In the continuum limit, filling the disk $k<k_F$ givesThereforeFor spin-half fermions with both spin states available, $g_s=2$ and ${\epsilon }_F=\pi {\hslash }^{2}N/(m\mathcal{S})$; for a spin-polarized gas $g_s=1$. The question does not specify the area or spin degeneracy, so these conventions must be stated rather than extracting an energy from $N$ alone. Although the original text calls $\mathbf{k}$ momentum, the supplied ${\hslash }^2{k}^2/(2m)$ dispersion makes it a wave vector; physical momentum is $\mathbf{p}=\hslash \mathbf{k}$. The result agrees with the constant two-dimensional free-electron density of states. Discrete level spacings in a finite sample would require a specified boundary spectrum.

One level occupied on average. Write $\delta ={\mu }_{B}B$ and $z=e^{\beta (\epsilon -\mu )}>0$. The two mean spin occupations areImposing $N_{+}+N_{-}=1$ gives $2+z(e^{\beta \delta }+e^{-\beta \delta })=1+z(e^{\beta \delta }+e^{-\beta \delta })+z^2$, hence $z^2=1$. Thus, for every positive temperature,The total magnetic moment is $\mathcal{M}=-{\mu }_B(N_{+}-N_{-})$. ConsequentlyThis is the grand-canonical spin susceptibility of a half-filled single level. Empty, singly occupied and doubly occupied orbital states are allowed in the grand canonical ensemble. At zero field, the singly occupied configurations together have probability $1/2$, explaining the factor of two relative to one permanent spin-half moment. If exactly one electron were required at all times, a canonical two-state partition function would instead give $\mathcal{M}={\mu }_B\tanh (\beta {\mu }_{B}B)$ and $\chi ={\mu }_B^2/(k_{B}T)$. That different answer does not implement the stated average-number constraint.

Density-of-states formula for the susceptibility. Here $g$ is the zero-field single-spin density of states. Regard its argument $E$ as the full spin-shifted energy. The shifted functions are $g_{\pm }(E)=g(E\mp {\mu }_{B}B)$, soThe total number is even in $B$; thus $\mu (B)=\mu (0)+O(B^2)$ at fixed total number on a smooth branch. More directly, terms from ${\mu }^{\prime }(0)$ cancel in the spin difference because the two densities coincide at zero field. To first order,It follows thatFor a physical energy band, take $g$ to vanish below its lower edge. Provided the endpoint term vanishes, integration by parts also givesThis form displays the positive response and the narrow thermal window around $\mu$. A sharp band edge is included by the corresponding distributional derivative in the first expression. The susceptibility defined here is the derivative of total magnetic moment with respect to $B$, with units $\mathrm{J}{\mathrm{T}}^{-2}$; it is not automatically a dimensionless SI volume susceptibility. A density-of-states convention per unit volume likewise gives a response per unit volume. These are the field conventions for magnetic susceptibility.

Chemical potential at fixed number. Define the integrated single-spin state countThe probability kernel $K_T$ has unit integral, mean $\mu$, and variance $a(k_{B}T{)}^2$. Using integration by parts,Expand $G$ about $\mu$. The linear term integrates to zero, while $G^{\prime \prime }=g^{\prime }$ givesThis is the number form of the Sommerfeld expansion. Since $N/2=G({\epsilon }_F)$ at zero temperature, set $\mu ={\epsilon }_F+\delta \mu$ with $\delta \mu =O(T^2)$:ThereforeThe coefficient can be obtained directly. With $y=(E-\mu )/(k_{B}T)$,For example, the sum follows by expanding $e^{-y}/(1+e^{-y}{)}^2$ on $y>0$, using the evenness of the kernel and integrating each exponential. Thus $a/2={\pi }^2/6$. A density of states increasing with energy gives a downward quadratic chemical-potential shift. For the constant two-dimensional density of states that shift vanishes to this order; a finite lower band edge still allows exponentially small corrections.

Low-temperature susceptibility at fixed number. Apply the same kernel expansion to $g$ itself:The shift of $\mu$ must be retained in the first term. Writing $g_F=g({\epsilon }_F)$ and similarly for its derivatives,ConsequentlyThis is the fixed-number low-temperature Pauli susceptibility. The $g_F^{\prime \prime }$ contribution is thermal broadening at fixed chemical potential; the $-g_F^{\prime 2}/g_F$ contribution enforces fixed total number. Both are needed. If the density of states were instead defined with both spin directions included, the prefactor $2$ would be absorbed into that definition. Only the spin response has been calculated; no orbital magnetic response is included.

The expansion assumes $g_F>0$, sufficient smoothness near the Fermi energy, and a temperature small compared with the energy scale over which $g$ changes or encounters a band edge. It does not apply unmodified at a singular density of states. For the ideal two-dimensional parabolic band, $g_F^{\prime }=g_F^{\prime \prime }=0$, so the leading Pauli response is temperature independent, consistently with the earlier state count.

Chapter 3 of Statistical Physics by David Tong. Section 3.5 gives Bose occupation and condensation, while sections 3.6.2–3.6.4 give the low-temperature Fermi gas and Sommerfeld expansion. The harmonic-trap state-counting integral in the solution is derived independently. No separately contributed chapter author is established.

The Sommerfeld expansion approximates integrals weighted by the Fermi-Dirac distribution when $k_{B}T\ll \mu$ and $f$ is smooth near $\mu$. Applying it to the number integral at fixed particle number gives $\mu -E_F=-({\pi }^2/6)(k_{B}T{)}^2{g}^{\prime }(E_F)/g(E_F)+\cdots$. The sign depends on the slope of the density of states. For an unbounded parabolic band, $g(E)\propto E^{d/2-1}$, yielding opposite quadratic shifts in one and three dimensions. In two dimensions the leading algebraic shift vanishes, but the finite band-bottom cutoff still gives an exponentially small negative shift.

For a symmetric interaction kernel, $\delta E/\delta n_a={ϵ}_a+V^{-1}{\sum }_b{f}_{ab}\delta n_b$. Smooth Fermi-surface kernels and fixed-density chemical-potential shifts give an $O(T^2)$ thermal correction by the Sommerfeld expansion. The reference dispersion already includes zero-temperature interactions.

For a three-dimensional free electron model, the spin-summed density of states at the Fermi energy is $g(E_F)=3N/(2E_F)$. A shell estimate treats $N_{\mathrm{act}}\sim g(E_F)k_{B}T$ electrons as thermally active and assigns each an excitation energy of order $k_{B}T$. For the illustrative choice $3k_{B}T/2$, $\Delta U\sim (9/4)N{k}_B^2{T}^2/E_F$ and differentiation gives $C_V\sim (9/2)N{k}_{B}T/T_F$. The numerical coefficient is heuristic: the controlled Sommerfeld expansion instead givesBoth estimates express Pauli exclusion principle suppression of the classical heat capacity when $T\ll T_F$. A shell argument establishes scaling rather than a universal prefactor.