An acute episode of crystal-associated arthritis in gout. Rapid local inflammation reflects the response to deposited urate rather than a new infection simply inferred from a hot, swollen joint.^[ref]

Gout with persistent tissue deposits called tophi. Repeated crystal deposition can damage joints and nearby structures, linking long-term burden with effects beyond individual acute inflammatory episodes.^[ref]

A deposit of urate crystals surrounded by a tissue reaction in gout. A tophus represents accumulated material and chronic local responses rather than merely the transient swelling of an acute attack.^[ref]

Gout affecting the foot, particularly its big toe. The ancient word is retained in historical accounts of gout.

A crystalline urate deposit involved in the inflammatory mechanism of gout. A historical description of pain does not by itself demonstrate such deposits. ^[ref]

Glycosuria arising from renal glucose-handling changes without the elevated blood plasma glucose ordinarily responsible for overflow. It can be isolated or part of a broader tubular disorder.^[ref]

The glomerular filtration barrier comprises the specialized capillary endothelium, basement membrane and podocyte-associated filtration slits of the glomerulus. Their combined properties determine what enters the initial filtrate. Size selectivity is therefore a feature of a layered interface rather than one simple open sieve.

Swelling of the endothelium of glomeruli with narrowing of their capillary lumina, notably associated with pre-eclampsia.^[ref]

An immune-mediated renal complication following group A streptococcal infection; it is distinct from direct bacterial invasion of the kidney.

Subglacial drainage transports water beneath a glacier. The water pressure affects basal sliding through the effective pressure in subglacial drainage. Röthlisberger channel drainage concentrates discharge in melt-enlarged conduits; a linked cavity drainage system distributes it through connected spaces maintained by sliding and creep.

A constitutive law for ice creep relates deviatoric stress ${\tau }_{ij}$ and strain rate ${\dot{ϵ}}_{ij}$ through an effective stress ${\tau }_e$ and a temperature-dependent rate factor $\mathcal{A}$. The commonly used exponent is near three. Homogeneity of degree $n$ explains the combination $u/N^n$ in pressure-dependent basal sliding laws when geometry and rate-factor scales are fixed.

Paraxial optics approximates light rays close to an optical axis and making small angles to it. Replacing $\sin \theta$ and $\tan \theta$ by $\theta$ makes propagation and refraction linear to first order, enabling ray transfer matrix analysis and the thin-lens equation.

For $\theta =0.05$ radians, $\sin \theta /\theta \simeq 0.99958$; at larger angles the error grows. This approximation is useful for first estimates of image positions and magnification. It deliberately omits higher-order optical aberrations, so agreement of a paraxial focus with a detector position does not guarantee a sharp image over a large aperture or field.

A small ganglion between the optic nerve and lateral rectus muscle. Preganglionic fibres of the parasympathetic nervous system relay here; sensory and already postganglionic fibres of the sympathetic nervous system traverse it without another relay.^[ref]

The submandibular ganglion is a parasympathetic relay associated with the lingual nerve. Preganglionic fibers arrive through the chorda tympani; output contributes to control of the submandibular gland and sublingual gland. Sharing a route does not imply that all lingual-nerve fibers synapse there.

The otic ganglion is a parasympathetic relay receiving fibers associated with the glossopharyngeal nerve through the lesser petrosal nerve. Postganglionic fibers reach the parotid gland using the auriculotemporal nerve.^[ref]

Algorithmic game theory studies the interaction of algorithms with strategic behavior. It asks both how hard equilibria are to compute and how mechanisms should be designed when participants choose actions to improve their own utility.

For example, a shortest-path algorithm optimizes travel time for one specified traveler, while a routing game asks what happens when many travelers each choose a route. A Nash equilibrium can have a larger total delay than a centrally chosen allocation. Quantifying that loss by a price of anarchy links incentives with computational optimization. The input representation, equilibrium concept and allowed running time must all be specified.

Acute inflammation of the gallbladder, often associated with obstruction of its outlet by a gallstone. It differs anatomically from acute cholangitis, which involves the bile ducts.

A genus of fungi including skin-associated yeasts.

A hypha is a filament of a fungus, usually growing by extension near its tip. Branching filaments can explore a substrate and absorb materials over a distributed surface. A filament may contain internal partitions without being divided into wholly independent organisms.

An arthroconidium is an asexual fungal propagule formed by fragmentation of a hypha. Formation by splitting an existing filament distinguishes it from propagules produced by budding or at the end of a specialized stalk.