Contemporary anonymous review in The British and Foreign Medico-Chirurgical Review, volume 21, pp. 285–297, of the 1857 work by Marshall Hall. The review documents historical terminology and experimental concerns; its postural method is not current resuscitation guidance.

A method for proving that an algorithm must perform a certain amount of work: supply observations compatible with more than one possible input until enough information has been acquired to distinguish the required outputs. For exact membership in an arbitrary array, answering every inspected location with a value other than the target forces inspection of every location in the absent case, since any uninspected location could contain the target.

An anal cushion is a normal vascular and connective-tissue structure within the anal canal. The cushions help provide a fine seal for continence. Their presence is normal anatomy; enlargement or displacement can produce hemorrhoidal disease without making every vascular cushion pathological.

The dentate line is a scalloped boundary within the anal canal associated with a change in epithelial type and developmental origin. Neural, vascular and lymphatic relations differ across the region. Its significance comes from these linked anatomical differences rather than simply its visible shape.

A drug-induced reduction in alertness and responsiveness. It spans different depths and is distinct from both analgesia and local anaesthesia; these effects can coexist without being equivalent.

Loss of sensation in a limited region, commonly through interruption of nerve conduction. Consciousness can remain intact, distinguishing the intended local effect from general anaesthesia.

An agent producing anaesthesia. The term describes an effect, while the site and mechanism of action distinguish agents used locally from those producing a more general state.

Transamination transfers an amino group between an amino acid and an oxo acid. A common pattern is amino acid plus 2-oxoglutarate forming the corresponding oxo acid plus glutamate. Many aminotransferases require pyridoxal phosphate as a enzyme cofactor. The reaction redistributes nitrogen without directly releasing ammonium, connecting amino-acid interconversion to later deamination. ^[ref]

Deamination removes an amino group from a compound. In amino acid metabolism, oxidative deamination of glutamate can release ammonium and regenerate a carbon skeleton for further reactions. This differs from transamination, which transfers nitrogen between molecules without directly releasing free ammonium. Coupling the two processes helps channel nitrogen from many amino acids toward common assimilation or disposal pathways. ^[ref]

The urea cycle converts nitrogen into urea through a linked series of reactions, especially in the mammalian liver. Nitrogen enters through ammonium and aspartate, while ornithine is regenerated as a cycle intermediate. The process consumes ATP, showing that safe disposal of nitrogen has an energetic cost. The urea cycle handles nitrogen released during amino acid metabolism rather than oxidizing the entire amino-acid carbon skeleton. ^[ref]

The two-carbon aldehyde also called ethanal. It can be an intermediate in a historical chloroform preparation from ethanol.

Trichloroacetaldehyde; alkaline cleavage can yield chloroform and formate.

Cardiac involvement in acute rheumatic fever, particularly valvular inflammation. Pain relief in arthritis does not establish absence of cardiac disease.

Discretionary access control lets an authorized owner or principal decide which other principals may access an object, subject to the surrounding system policy. A file owner granting another user read permission is a standard example. An access control list can represent grants for named users or access-control groups. This differs from a mandatory policy that ordinary owners cannot override. Permission to read data is not automatically permission to redistribute it, but ordinary discretionary mechanisms may not track all copies once a reader has obtained the contents.

A classification-based information confidentiality model restricting subject accesses to prevent forbidden information flow. The simple security property restricts reading above clearance; the Bell-LaPadula star property restricts information flow through current reads and writes. It is not a complete data integrity policy.

An access right combining reading and writing, as opposed to a blind write that reveals no existing contents. Its precise meaning is part of the access model.

The syntax tree of a logical formula records its recursive construction. A propositional variable is a leaf, negation has one child, and binary implication has an ordered pair of children. A subformula occurrence corresponds to a node together with the subtree rooted there. Different occurrences may have identical formula strings.

A computational model with an internal state and transition rule, together with an initial state and optional observation and stopping functions. The state space need not be finite; a finite-state machine is the special case with finitely many states. A trace records observations along transitions. An interface providing only reset, update, stopping and observation operations does not by itself provide copying or rollback; a trace iterator can revisit saved observations without reversing machine effects.

Implementation of an abstract state and operations using a more concrete representation, justified by a coupling invariant. For example, an insertion-history list may be implemented by a sorted array when clients observe only occurrence counts and order statistics. The observable behavior, rather than insertion order internally, must agree.