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For distinct or equal prime numbers $\ell ,\lambda$, the polynomial $X^{\ell }-\lambda$ is Eisenstein at $\lambda$. Its splitting field over $\mathbb{Q}({\zeta }_{\ell })$ has Galois group a subgroup of $C_{\ell }$, which is nontrivial because a degree-$\ell$ radical cannot belong to a degree-$(\ell -1)$ cyclotomic field. Thus the full Galois group has order $\ell (\ell -1)$. On roots indexed by $j\in {\mathbb{F}}_{\ell }$, all automorphisms act as $j\mapsto uj+b$. Equality of orders identifies the group with the full affine group over a finite field.

// Target: algebra.bigb

For an odd prime $p$, the splitting fieldof $X^p-2$ has Galois groupThe translation subgroup multiplies $2^{1/p}$ by powers of ${\zeta }_p$, while the multiplicative subgroup acts on ${\zeta }_p$ by cyclotomic automorphisms.

Choose compatible primitive roots of unity ${\zeta }_{p^{n+1}}$. The partial sums $A_N={\sum }_{n=0}^N{p}^{2n}{\zeta }_{p^{n+1}}$ form a Cauchy sequence. Each $A_N$ generates ${\mathbb{Q}}_p({\zeta }_{p^{N+1}})$: for a nonidentity cyclotomic automorphism with $r=v_p(a-1)$, the first changed term has valuation $2r+1/(p-1)$, strictly below every later changed term. Thus the conjugate distance is at least $p^{-2N-1/(p-1)}$. The tail bound is $p^{-2N-2}$, strictly smaller. If the limit were algebraic, Krasner's lemma would place every one of these unbounded-degree cyclotomic fields in one finite extension, a contradiction.

Algebraic K-theory studies invariants built from projective modules and their automorphisms over rings. Its lowest groups record the additive projective-module classes and stable invertible matrices, respectively. It differs from Topological K-theory, although vector-bundle clutching and module patching have parallel forms.

If a finite group $G$ acts faithfully by automorphisms on a field $L$, then $L/L^G$ is Galois, has degree $|G|$, and has Galois group $G$.

This theorem constructs a Galois extension from a finite group of field automorphisms; it is not an alternative name for the extension itself.

An Artin–Schreier extension is a field extension generated by a root $\alpha$ of an irreducible Artin–Schreier polynomial. It is a cyclic Galois extension of degree $p$, with automorphisms $\alpha \mapsto \alpha +c$ for $c\in {\mathbb{F}}_p$.

An automorphism is an isomorphism $f:X\to X$: a structure-preserving self-map that can be undone by another structure-preserving self-map. Equivalently, it is an invertible endomorphism. Its inverse satisfieswhere $1_X$ is the identity morphism. Both maps must be morphisms in the chosen category. For ordinary groups, rings, and vector spaces over a fixed field, a bijective morphism automatically has a compatible inverse. For topological spaces, an automorphism is a homeomorphism from the space to itself: a continuous bijection needs a continuous inverse as well. See Riehl, Category Theory in Context, Definition 1.1.10 and Example 1.1.11.

For example, $T(x,y)=(x+y,y)$ is an automorphism of the vector space ${\mathbb{R}}^2$ over the real numbers, with inverse $T^{-1}(u,v)=(u-v,v)$. Both are linear maps. The linear endomorphism $P(x,y)=(x,0)$ from endomorphism preserves addition and scalar multiplication too, but discards a coordinate and cannot be undone. Preserving the structure and preserving enough information for reversal are separate requirements.

The automorphisms of a fixed object in a locally small category form a group under composition in a category: the identity morphism is the identity element, and the inverse element of a composite reverses the order of its factors. This makes reversible internal changes calculable. For a group, the resulting automorphism group records which relabelings preserve all products; the examples in group automorphism show how restrictive that condition can be.

An automorphism of a field extension $K/F$ is a field automorphism $\sigma :K\to K$ fixing every element of $F$. Such maps form the field automorphism group ${\mathrm{Aut}}_F(K)$ under composition. For a Finite Galois extension this is the Galois group $\mathrm{Gal}(K/F)$. Specifying the fixed base field distinguishes these maps from arbitrary field automorphisms of $K$.

An automorphism of a Lie algebra is an invertible linear map $f:\mathfrak{g}\to \mathfrak{g}$ satisfying $f([X,Y])=[f(X),f(Y)]$.

An automorphism of a polynomial ring is an invertible ring homomorphism from the ring to itself. For example, $f(X)\mapsto f(X+a)$ has inverse $f(X)\mapsto f(X-a)$, so translating the variable preserves reducibility.

An automorphism of a root system $\Phi \subset E$ is an orthogonal transformation of $E$ mapping $\Phi$ onto itself. The Weyl group is a subgroup of this automorphism group; additional automorphisms can act nontrivially on a Dynkin diagram while preserving a root basis.

An automorphism preserving the transposition class is inner: commuting relations recover the vertex stars of the complete graph, with a small-case adjustment in degrees three and four. An involution class has the same size as the transposition class only in degree six, when triple transpositions also have size fifteen. Hence outer automorphism groups of symmetric groups are trivial outside degree six and have size at most two in degree six.

// Target: combinatorics.bigb

A group of automorphisms of a finite group permutes both its conjugacy classes and its irreducible characters. The two permutation representations have the same character: each automorphism fixes equally many conjugacy classes and irreducible characters. The invertible character table intertwines the two permutation matrices, which have equal traces. The claim concerns fixed classes, not merely fixed elements.

The hypothesis makes $P$ abelian and makes any two conjugate elements of $P$ equal. For the latter assertion, Sylow conjugacy inside the centralizer of the target element adjusts a conjugating element into $N_G(P)$, where it centralizes $P$. Evaluating group transfer to $P$ on an element $u\in P$, each coset cycle contributes a conjugate of $u$ raised to the cycle length, hence that same power of $u$. The restriction is consequently $u\mapsto u^{[G:P]}$, an automorphism of the abelian $p$-group. Transfer is surjective, and its kernel is the required normal p-complement.

Let an abelian group $V$ carry an action $\rho$ of a group $H$ by automorphisms, and use multiplication $(h,v)(k,w)=(hk,v+\rho (h)w)$. Comparing $(e,v)(h,w)$ and $(h,w)(e,v)$ shows that a translation is central precisely when its vector is fixed by the entire action. If $H$ is itself abelian, the whole semidirect product is abelian exactly when the action is trivial. For $H=(\mathbb{R},+)$, $V={\mathbb{R}}^2$, and determinant-one linear actions fixing the first coordinate vector, $\rho (x)=\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& r(x)\\ 0& 1\end{array}\right)$, where $r$ is an additive function. Without a regularity assumption, it need not be $r(x)=cx$.

A subgroup is characteristic when every automorphism of the ambient group maps it to itself. A uniquely determined subgroup of a given order or structural type is characteristic.

For the nontrivial action of $C_3$ on $C_7$, the conjugacy class sizes are $1,7,7,3,3$. Three linear characters factor through the quotient $C_3$, and the remaining two irreducible characters have degree three. Put $\omega =e^{2\pi i/3}$ and let $\alpha ,\beta =(-1\pm i\sqrt{7})/2$. With suitable class labels the table isOne can derive the last two rows by inducing nontrivial characters of $C_7$ along the two orbits of the order-three automorphism on their exponents. Their degree-three orbit sums vanish off $C_7$. On a generator they give the two sums of seventh roots over quadratic residues and nonresidues. Their sum is $-1$ and their product is $2$: the nine pairwise exponent sums between the two triples contain zero three times and every nonzero residue once. Thus they are the roots of $X^2+X+2$. Alternatively column orthogonality forces the zeros on the centralizers of order three, and orthogonality with the identity column interchanges $\alpha$ and $\beta$ in the last row. This finite table illustrates how centralizer sizes and a small number of given values determine missing character values.

A CM-field is a totally imaginary number field that is a quadratic extension of a totally real number field. Its nontrivial automorphism over that real subfield acts as complex conjugation in every complex embedding. Imaginary quadratic number fields are examples. An arbitrary totally imaginary number field need not have such a real subfield of index two.

Let $N$ be a finite group and $\alpha$ an automorphism whose only fixed element is the identity. If $\alpha (a{)}^{-1}a=\alpha (b{)}^{-1}b$, then $\alpha (b{a}^{-1})=b{a}^{-1}$, so $a=b$. The displayed map is therefore a bijection. For conjugation by a nonidentity element of a Frobenius complement, it gives the commutator map $y\mapsto h^{-1}{y}^{-1}hy$.

If two positive bumps of an order automorphism move a point $c$ beyond an interval $[c,d]$, their conjugacy can be chosen to fix that interval: begin with the identity there, complete the increasing map between fundamental intervals, and extend equivariantly along bump iterates. If both bump supports lie in one fundamental interval of another positive motion $h$, fix that cell's endpoints and repeat the conjugator on all its $h$-translates. The result commutes with $h$, and with any automorphism supported in the interval fixed pointwise.