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A dependable relation between an action and its sensory consequences. A mirror generates tightly coupled visual changes that can support learning about the relation between body movement and reflected movement.

Learning relationships between sensory events and one’s own actions. Correlated observation and execution can shape a mapping without a special-purpose innate matching mechanism.

Access to information normally supplied through one sensory modality by recoding it for another. Successful use can restore a function without restoring the missing receptor system or establishing ordinary experience in that modality. Device engineering, learning and subjective reports address different aspects.

Acquisition of ordered relations among events or actions. A sequence-learning deficit can reflect problems with perception, motor execution, memory or learning itself; control tasks determine which interpretation is warranted.

A human memory architecture in which new information must pass through a short-term store to reach a long-term store. A strong version is challenged if the specific short-term mechanism claimed to be obligatory is severely impaired while relevant long-term learning remains relatively preserved. Residual or alternative routes must be considered.

A researcher whose work concerns developmental fear learning.^[ref]

Learning influenced by other individuals or their products. Its mechanism can range from attention to a location to acquisition of more detailed behavioural information.

A songbird, or oscine, is a bird of Passeri, a major branch of Passeriformes. The name denotes evolutionary membership, rather than a judgment about whether a particular call is melodious. The chaffinch is one familiar example. Relationships among these birds are studied using DNA and phylogenetic trees, alongside their anatomy and behavior.^[ref]

Songbirds provide particularly clear experiments on learning. In W. H. Thorpe's chaffinch experiments, birds raised without normal song exposure developed simpler songs, whereas birds with early experience could retain much more normal patterns. An apparatus called the Song Tutor replayed constructed sequences of notes, letting the investigator change what a juvenile heard rather than merely observe wild adults. Some artificial patterns were learned, provided their sound characteristics were sufficiently appropriate.^[ref]

The comparison separates three questions: what vocal patterns a bird can physically produce, what experience supplies, and when that experience is effective. A sensitive period means that the timing of exposure matters. These results establish a role for experience in the tested species; they do not imply that every songbird learns the same repertoire at the same age.

Use of different procedures across problems or occasions. Variation can be informative about learning rather than mere error; a single correct answer or verbal report may not identify the underlying strategy.

A major input structure of the basal ganglia, with cortical inputs and dopaminergic modulation. Distinct circuits contribute to action selection and learning; a functional actor-critic analogy does not establish a universal anatomical partition into one actor and one critic.

Susan E. Brandon studies associative learning. Her experimental work examined how one conditioned stimulus modulates a discrete conditioned reflex in rabbits, while her theoretical work helped develop the SOP model. Separating the elicited reflex from a broader modulatory influence allows a learning model to make predictions about interactions between different trained cues. ^[ref]

A neurologist who coauthored clinical research comparing the age of reported dementia onset in bilingual and monolingual groups. The observational association, including adjustment for measured background variables, is distinct from a randomized demonstration that learning a language prevents disease.^[ref]

Neurologist studying cognitive disorders and bilingual experience.

A neuroscientist whose longitudinal investigations of Henry Molaison included motor-skill learning despite severe amnesia.

Stabilization involving cellular and synaptic plasticity mechanisms after learning, rather than only continued sensory input or working-memory rehearsal.

The proposal that waking-associated strengthening is balanced by sleep-associated renormalization of overall strength of synapses. Selective weakening could improve capacity and relative signal contrast while preserving important differences. It is compatible with some strengthening or reactivation, and is not the claim that sleep indiscriminately erases learning.

A learning rule can constrain the sum or norm of incoming synaptic weights to prevent unbounded Hebbian learning. For ${\sum }_i{w}_{ai}=S$, subtracting the mean unconstrained update from each update preserves the sum. Bounds and renormalization may also be needed to keep excitatory weights nonnegative. Normalization of learning weights is distinct from divisive gain control in instantaneous neural responses.

Changes in synaptic efficacy over time. Activity-dependent plasticity can support learning and development, but also requires constraints to prevent unbounded growth or competition in simplified models.

Re-presenting a cue previously associated with learning, often during sleep, to bias subsequent reactivation. Unpaired-cue, waking-cue and sleep-stage controls help distinguish a memory-specific effect from sensory stimulation or arousal.

A teacher's prediction or assumption about a learner's performance or potential. To establish a self-fulfilling effect, research must show how expectations change treatment or opportunity and subsequent learning, rather than infer causation from a correlation.

Learning and Motivation 26, 433–455. Experiment 1 pairs odors with sweet or sour tastes and tests changes in subsequent odor judgments. The 05 in the DOI is not the publication year.