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A pole at $k=i\kappa$ with $\kappa >0$ represents a normalizable bound state of energy $-{\hslash }^2{\kappa }^2/(2m)$. Resonance poles instead lie away from the imaginary axis on the analytically continued unphysical sheet.

At high energy with $x=-t/s\in (0,1)$ fixed, reflection and Stirling formulas for the gamma function give the displayed exponential envelope, away from real-axis resonance poles or after suitable analytic continuation. It is softer than the power-law fixed-angle behavior of typical point-particle interactions and exposes the finite string length. This limit differs from the fixed-$t$ Regge limit and does not by itself prove finiteness of every loop amplitude.

For $t\simeq -as$, $u\simeq -(1-a)s$ with $0<a<1$, the smooth high-energy envelope satisfies $\log |A|\simeq -2s[-a\log a-(1-a)\log (1-a)]$. The Gamma function asymptotics cancel the leading $s\log s$ terms, leaving exponential suppression. Exact real-axis resonance poles must be excluded or treated by analytic continuation.

A hard wall at the origin and an attractive delta potential at distance $a$ form a leaky quantum cavity. For unit incident amplitude from outside, the interior standing wave has coefficient $A=-i\lambda x/[1-e^{2ix}+i\lambda x]$, where $x=ka$ and $\lambda ={\hslash }^2/(mqa)>0$. Its modulus squared is the title expression. A resonance pole $p_n=x_n-i{\gamma }_n$ produces an enhancement with a locally Lorentzian line shape, proportional to $[(x-x_n{)}^2+{\gamma }_n^2{]}^{-1}$. At fixed low $n$ and small $\lambda$, $x_n\simeq n\pi (1+\lambda /2+{\lambda }^2/4)$ and ${\gamma }_n\simeq (\lambda n\pi /2{)}^2$.

The coefficient can exceed one because it measures a standing-wave amplitude, while the net interior probability current is zero. Conservation of probability current gives unit reflected flux: no current passes through the hard wall. Near zero, $|A{|}^2\to {\lambda }^2/(2-\lambda {)}^2$ when $\lambda \ne 2$; the threshold case $\lambda =2$ requires a separate limit.

A neutron capture resonance is an energy interval where a matching excited state of the combined atomic nucleus enhances capture. Its collision cross-section can have a peak rather than a monotone dependence on energy. The resonance pole description connects this to quantum scattering. Slowing a neutron through such a region can first increase and then decrease a particular reaction response. The capture probability also competes with other reaction channels.

Write $k=e^2/(4\pi {ϵ}_0)$ and retain the nuclear Coulomb potential. In spherical coordinates, the total potential energy iswhen $\beta =-\alpha /2$; $P_2(u)=(3u^2-1)/2$ is a Legendre polynomial. Treat the added term using quadratic anisotropic perturbation of hydrogen and degenerate perturbation theory in the $n=2$ hydrogen energy eigenbasis. It preserves parity and $m$, so it cannot mix $2s$ with $2p$, or distinct $2p$ magnetic sublevels.

For a hydrogen atom, the hydrogen radial second moment givesThe angular expectation values of ${\cos }^2\theta$ are $1/3$ for an $s$ orbital, $3/5$ for $p_0$, and $1/5$ for $p_{\pm 1}$, obtained by integrating the squared spherical harmonics. Therefore the five lowest spatial quantum states, counting statistical weight, have first-order energy levelsEach spatial quantum state has two electron spin states when spin-orbit coupling and the magnetic field are omitted. Thus these are five spatial states but only three distinct first-order energies; five distinct energies would be an incorrect reading. The accidental $2s,2p_{\pm 1}$ equality can be lifted at higher order. Quantitatively the added shifts must also be small compared with neighboring principal-shell gaps; $\alpha \ll k/a_0^3$ is an asymptotic condition, not a guarantee for arbitrary large $n$.

For general $\beta$, the $1s$ expectation value isIt does not cancel every order. At $\beta =-2\alpha$, $V_{\mathrm{ext}}=-2\alpha r^2{P}_2(\cos \theta )$ couples $1s$ to $d$ orbitals. For example its angular matrix element with $Y_{20}$ is $1/\sqrt{5}$, and the $3d$ radial matrix element is nonzero. The second-order nondegenerate perturbation theory sum has negative denominators, so this is a concrete nonzero higher-order contribution.

There is also a global limitation: for either negative $\beta$ above, $V(0,0,z)=-k/|z|+\beta z^2\to -\infty$. A localized wavepacket translated far along $z$ has fixed kinetic energy but arbitrarily negative potential energy, proving there is no true lowest energy level. The results describe local perturbative resonance poles, or a potential completed to a confining form far from the atomic nucleus. No globally exact ground-state cancellation exists for the potential as printed.

With outgoing-channel index first, the scattering matrix convention is ${\psi }_b\sim I_b+{\sum }_{a=\pm }{S}_{ab}{O}_a$ as $|x|\to \infty$. An even potential commutes with parity, so its incoming even and odd channels remain separate: $\boxed{S_{+-}=S_{-+}=0}$.

For the odd channel, on $0<x<a$ write ${\psi }_{-}(x)=C\sin (kx)$, while on $x>a$ its prescribed normalization is $e^{-ikx}-S_{--}{e}^{ikx}$. A delta potential keeps the wavefunction continuous and imposes ${\psi }^{\prime }(a+)-{\psi }^{\prime }(a-)=U_0\psi (a)$, with $U_0=2m{V}_0/{\hslash }^2$. Thus the exterior logarithmic derivative is $k\cot (ka)+U_0$. Matching givesMultiplying numerator and denominator by $2\sin (ka)$ and using exponential forms yieldsFor real $k,U_0$, the numerator of the fraction is the complex conjugate of its denominator, and the prefactor has modulus one. Hence $\boxed{|S_{--}{|}^2=1}$, conservation of probability flux in this single elastic parity channel. In particular the minus sign built into $O_{-}$ makes the free odd-channel matrix element equal to one.

For an odd bound state, continue to $k=i\kappa$, $\kappa >0$. A pole means the outgoing solution is exponentially decaying on both sides. Its denominator vanishes whenThe function $2\kappa /(1-e^{-2\kappa a})$ rises strictly from $1/a$ to infinity: differentiation reduces positivity to $e^{2\kappa a}>1+2\kappa a$. Thus there is exactly one positive solution if $-U_0>1/a$, and none otherwise. The numerator does not vanish at that solution, so the pole is genuine. ConsequentlyAt equality the zero-energy threshold solution is not square integrable.

For repulsive strong barriers put $u=U_{0}a\gg 1$ and $z=ka=\pi +\delta$. The pole equation is $z\cot z+u-iz=0$. Since $\cot \delta ={\delta }^{-1}-\delta /3+O({\delta }^3)$, multiplication by $\delta$ gives $\pi +(u+1-i\pi )\delta +O({\delta }^2)=0$. Iterating in $u^{-1}$ yieldsThis lower-half-plane resonance pole is an odd standing wave trapped between the barriers and slowly leaking by tunnelling. Its complex energy is $E_R-i\Gamma /2$, with $\Gamma \simeq 2{\hslash }^2\pi \gamma /(m{a}^2)>0$. The factor $e^{-iEt/\hslash }$ then decays rather than grows; $\gamma >0$ encodes the positive escape rate.

The conversion from a measured beam peak to a particle resonance mass is fixed, but the missing graph supplies neither the peak position nor its width. Let $T_R$ be the incoming pion kinetic energy at the peak and $\Delta T$ the full width at half maximum after allowing for instrumental resolution. With a stationary proton and natural units,Thus the peak invariant mass isThe width must also be transformed to the centre-of-mass frame. To first order about the peak,For a broad feature, transform the two half-height positions separately: if they are $T_{-}$ and $T_{+}$, then the corresponding width in invariant mass is $\sqrt{(m_p+m_{\pi }{)}^2+2m_p{T}_{+}}-\sqrt{(m_p+m_{\pi }{)}^2+2m_p{T}_{-}}$. An energy-dependent numerator or width can also displace the observed maximum from the resonance pole parameter.

The low-energy ${\pi }^{+}p$ channel is normally dominated by ${\Delta }^{++}(1232)$, a Delta baryon with $Q=2$, $B=1$ and $I=3/2$. As an external reference example, not a reading of the absent plot, $M=1232\mathrm{MeV}$ and $\Gamma =117\mathrm{MeV}$ give $T_R\simeq 190\mathrm{MeV}$, $\Delta T\simeq 154\mathrm{MeV}$ and $\tau \simeq 5.63\times 10^{-24}\mathrm{s}$.^[ref] The actual graphical estimates remain unavailable. In particular, using the laboratory width directly in $\tau =\hslash /\Delta T$ misses the factor $m_p/M$.

For real $x=ka$, taking the modulus squared of the amplitude gives the half-line delta-well amplitude enhancementThe supplied resonance poles have real parts $x_n\simeq n\pi (1+\lambda /2+{\lambda }^2/4)$ and negative imaginary parts $-{\gamma }_n\simeq -(\lambda n\pi /2{)}^2$ for fixed low $n$ at $\lambda \ll 1$.^[ref] Linearizing the denominator at a simple pole givesThus the sketch has narrow, tall peaks with a locally Lorentzian line shape, just above positive integer multiples of $\pi$. Their half-widths are ${\gamma }_n$, and the leading peak heights are $4/({\lambda }^2{n}^2{\pi }^2)$. In this fixed-low-mode approximation, increasing $n$ broadens and lowers the peaks. Exactly at $x=n\pi \ne 0$, the value is one. At zero it has the finite limit ${\lambda }^2/(2-\lambda {)}^2$ for $\lambda \ne 2$.

The peaks represent long-lived standing waves between the wall and the attractive delta potential. Despite the source's transmission-coefficient terminology, $|A{|}^2$ is an internal amplitude factor and can exceed one. The interior probability current is zero, and the reflected probability current equals the incident magnitude; the hard wall passes no transmitted flux.

On the physical sheet the bound-state amplitude poles lie at $k=i{\kappa }_j$, ${\kappa }_j>0$, and map to real negative $E_j=-{\hslash }^2{\kappa }_j^2/(2m)$. The square-root map has two sheets meeting at the continuum threshold. Analytic continuation can also have virtual-state poles on the negative imaginary $k$ axis and resonance poles in the lower half-plane; these are not normalizable bound states. In the energy plane the resonances belong to the nonphysical sheet, rather than additional negative-axis bound levels.

For the algebraically continued probability, include the mirror poles contributed by $D(-k)$ as explained in part d; the two $k$ signs map to the same numerical energy but need not impose the same boundary condition. A sketch must label the sheet or the amplitude being plotted, rather than treating every singularity as a bound state.

An axially symmetric quadratic potential energy perturbation preserves parity and the $z$ component of orbital angular momentum. For $1s,2s,2p_0,2p_{\pm 1}$, its first-order energy shifts are respectively $(2\alpha +\beta )a_0^2$, $14(2\alpha +\beta )a_0^2$, $(12\alpha +18\beta )a_0^2$, and $(24\alpha +6\beta )a_0^2$. They follow by multiplying the hydrogen radial second moment by the angular average of $\alpha +(\beta -\alpha ){\cos }^2\theta$, whose ${\cos }^2\theta$ averages are $1/3,1/3,3/5,1/5$. Negative $\beta$ makes the globally extended potential unbounded below; the shifts then describe local perturbative resonance poles or a potential stabilized at large distance.