Education is a causal risk factor if an <intervention> that changes educational exposure changes the distribution of the corresponding <potential outcome> for myopia. An observed <statistical association> need not have that interpretation. Shared causes such as socioeconomic circumstances, parental behavior, genetic traits, or preference for indoor near work can <confounding>[confound] education and myopia. <Reverse causality> is also possible: children with impaired distance vision may select more reading and indoor study, which can increase educational attainment without education causing the impairment.

Solution

Past exam of the mathematics course of the University of Cambridge / 2021 / iii / Paper 207 / 2 / a / Solution

A statistical association is a systematic dependence between variables. It need not represent a <causal effect>, because it may arise from <confounding>, selection, or reverse causation.

= Association
{synonym}

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 Incoming links: Statistical association