Impact evaluation is a systematic assessment that aims to determine the changes that can be attributed to a particular intervention, program, or policy. It seeks to identify the causal effects of an intervention on specified outcomes by comparing the results of the intervention group to a counterfactual—what would have happened in the absence of the intervention. Key features of impact evaluation include: 1. **Causality**: It focuses explicitly on establishing a causal link between the intervention and observed changes.

M-theory is a theoretical framework in physics that attempts to unify the various string theories into a single coherent model. It emerged in the mid-1990s when researchers realized that different string theories were related to one another through dualities, which are mathematical transformations that connect seemingly different theories.

The Lakatos Award is a distinguished recognition in the field of philosophy of science. It was established in 2002 by the London School of Economics (LSE) in memory of the Hungarian philosopher Imre Lakatos, who made significant contributions to the philosophy of mathematics and science. The award is given annually to a research project or a book that makes a notable contribution to the philosophy of science.

Normal science is a term coined by philosopher Thomas Kuhn in his influential work "The Structure of Scientific Revolutions," published in 1962. Normal science refers to the regular work of scientists within a prevailing framework or paradigm. During periods of normal science, researchers operate under a common set of assumptions, theories, and methodologies that are widely accepted within the scientific community.

"Not even wrong" is a phrase coined by physicist Wolfgang Pauli, often used to describe a theory or idea that is so far from reality or empirical evidence that it cannot even be classified as incorrect. Essentially, it implies that the argument or hypothesis is so misguided that it fails to meet the basic criteria for being considered a legitimate scientific theory; it's not just wrong, but fundamentally misguided.

Observation is the process of closely monitoring and examining something to gather information and gain insights. It involves using one's senses—sight, hearing, touch, taste, and smell—to detect and record details about an object, event, or phenomenon. In various contexts, observation can serve different purposes: 1. **Scientific Observation**: In scientific research, observation is used to collect data and test hypotheses. Scientists may conduct experiments or make field observations to study natural phenomena systematically.

Pseudoskepticism refers to a style of skepticism that is often characterized by a refusal to consider evidence or to engage in genuine inquiry, particularly regarding claims that are outside the mainstream or contradict established scientific views. While true skepticism emphasizes critical thinking, open-mindedness, and the evaluation of evidence, pseudoskepticism typically involves rejecting ideas or claims without fair consideration or rigorous examination.

A Ramsey sentence is a specific type of formal statement used in logic and philosophy to express the essential content of a theory without committing to the specific nature of its unobservable entities. Named after the philosopher Frank P. Ramsey, a Ramsey sentence allows for the formulation of a theory in a way that abstracts away from underlying assumptions about the existence or nature of the theoretical entities involved.

The Sustainable Transport Award is an accolade that recognizes cities and organizations for their efforts and achievements in promoting sustainable transportation solutions. This award typically focuses on initiatives that reduce reliance on fossil fuels, encourage public transit usage, promote cycling and walking, and enhance overall sustainable mobility. Award criteria often include innovations in transport policy, infrastructure improvements, and programs aimed at reducing greenhouse gas emissions and improving air quality.

"Roadkill" generally refers to animals that have been struck and killed by vehicles on roads or highways. It can also denote the remains of these animals found along the roadside. The term is often used in discussions about wildlife conservation, road safety, and environmental impact, particularly concerning the effects of roads on local animal populations. In a cultural context, "Roadkill" may also refer to various media, including movies, music, and video games, often using the term metaphorically or for shock value.

Shipping, often referred to as maritime transport, is a crucial component of global trade and logistics, responsible for moving goods across oceans and waterways. However, it has significant environmental impacts that have garnered increasing attention. Here are some key aspects of shipping and its relationship with the environment: ### Environmental Impacts of Shipping 1.

Atmosfair is a non-profit organization based in Germany that focuses on climate protection by promoting sustainable travel and carbon offsetting. It aims to mitigate the impact of air travel on climate change by allowing travelers to calculate the carbon emissions associated with their flights and to offset those emissions through donations to various climate protection projects. The organization supports initiatives that promote renewable energy, energy efficiency, and emission reduction in developing countries.

The "road-effect zone" refers to the area surrounding a road where various ecological impacts occur due to road infrastructure and traffic. These impacts can affect wildlife, plant communities, and overall ecosystem function. The road-effect zone can extend several meters to kilometers away from the road, depending on factors such as traffic volume, road type, and local environmental conditions.

"Transport by continent" generally refers to the various modes and systems of transportation that are prevalent or developed in different continents around the world. Each continent has its own unique infrastructure, challenges, and technologies related to transport. Here's an overview of transport systems commonly found in each continent: ### Africa - **Road Transport**: Often characterized by a mix of paved and unpaved roads; bus and matatu services are common in urban and rural areas.

"Transport by country" generally refers to the various modes of transportation available within a specific country or the transportation infrastructure and logistics systems that facilitate the movement of people and goods. This can include: 1. **Road Transport**: The network of roads, highways, and vehicles used for transportation. This includes personal vehicles, buses, trucks, and motorcycles. 2. **Rail Transport**: The rail networks and train services available within the country, including passenger trains, freight trains, and commuting services.

"Transport by function" is not a widely recognized term in standard disciplines, but it can be interpreted differently based on context. Here are a few possible interpretations: 1. **Mathematics and Physics**: In these fields, transport often refers to the movement of quantities (like mass, energy, or information) through a system. "Transport by function" could refer to a mathematical function that describes how these quantities move through space and time.

"Vehicles by media" typically refers to how different types of vehicles are represented or depicted across various forms of media outlets. This can encompass a wide variety of areas including: 1. **Film and Television**: The portrayal of vehicles in movies and shows, such as iconic cars in action films or the design of futuristic transport in sci-fi series. 2. **Video Games**: The design and functionality of vehicles within video games, which can range from realistic driving simulations to fantastical flying machines.

Rail transport by time refers to the historical development and evolution of railways and train services over various periods. This encompasses the technological advancements, economic impacts, cultural significance, and social changes associated with rail transport. Here’s a brief overview of significant milestones in rail transport history: ### 19th Century - **1825**: The world's first public railway, the Stockton and Darlington Railway, opened in England.

Railway culture refers to the set of values, practices, traditions, and social interactions that characterize the community of people involved in railways. This culture can encompass a wide range of elements, including: 1. **Professional Identity**: Railway workers, from engineers and conductors to maintenance staff and station managers, often share a strong professional identity linked to their roles and responsibilities. This can create a sense of camaraderie and pride in their work.

**Charles River Bridge v. Warren Bridge (1837)** is a landmark United States Supreme Court case that dealt with issues of contracts, the interpretation of state charters, and the power of the state over private corporations. ### Background: The case arose from a dispute between two bridge companies in Massachusetts. The Charles River Bridge Company had been granted a charter in 1785 to build a toll bridge over the Charles River.