Chargaff's rules are crucial principles in molecular biology that describe the base composition of DNA. Proposed by biochemist Erwin Chargaff in the 1950s, they can be summarized as follows: 1. **Base Pairing Rules**: In any given DNA molecule, the amounts of adenine (A) are equal to the amounts of thymine (T), and the amounts of guanine (G) are equal to the amounts of cytosine (C).

Chlororespiration is a metabolic process observed in certain photosynthetic microorganisms, particularly in some green algae and cyanobacteria. This process involves the use of chlorophyll-containing organelles or chloroplasts to drive respiration in the absence of light. In more traditional terms, respiration generally refers to the process of converting organic compounds into energy through oxidation, typically using oxygen.

A chemotaxis assay is a laboratory technique used to study the movement of cells in response to chemical signals in their environment. This process, known as chemotaxis, is a crucial mechanism by which cells navigate toward or away from various chemical stimuli, which can include nutrients, pheromones, and toxins.

In chemistry, the term "compartment" generally refers to a distinct physical or conceptual region within a system where specific chemical reactions, processes, or equilibria are occurring. This term is often used in the study of complex systems, including biological systems, where different compartments can represent cellular organelles, phases in a heterogeneous mixture, or bounded regions in a reaction setup.

Cre recombinase is an enzyme derived from the P1 bacteriophage, which is a type of virus that infects bacteria. It is widely used in molecular biology for its ability to catalyze site-specific recombination events between specific DNA sequences known as loxP sites (short for "locus of crossing over in P1"). The primary function of Cre recombinase is to facilitate the insertion, deletion, or rearrangement of genetic material.

Cycling probe technology is a method used primarily in semiconductor manufacturing and testing. It involves using a series of electrical probes to make contact with a semiconductor device to test its functioning at various stages of the production process. The "cycling" aspect refers to the ability of these probes to test multiple points or perform a series of tests in a cyclical manner, allowing for thorough examination without needing to remove or reposition the semiconductor device physically.

A DNA bank is a facility or collection that stores biological samples, specifically DNA, for various purposes, including research, conservation, forensic analysis, and medical applications. These banks can house samples from a variety of organisms, including humans, animals, plants, and microorganisms. ### Key Functions of a DNA Bank: 1. **Research and Development**: DNA banks support scientific studies in genetics, genomics, and evolutionary biology. Researchers can access genetic material for various experiments and analyses.

DNA extraction is a laboratory process used to isolate DNA from cells or tissues, allowing for further analysis, study, or manipulation of genetic material. This process is fundamental in various fields, including genetics, molecular biology, forensics, and biotechnology. The general steps of DNA extraction typically include: 1. **Cell Lysis**: The cells are broken open to release their contents, including DNA.

The FLAG-tag is a short peptide sequence that is commonly used in molecular biology for the purification and detection of proteins. The FLAG peptide consists of eight amino acids, typically represented as DYKDDDDK. It was developed to facilitate the identification and isolation of proteins within cells and various biological systems.

DNA–DNA hybridization is a molecular biology technique used to measure the degree of similarity between the DNA sequences of different organisms. This process involves the denaturation (separation) of double-stranded DNA into single strands and then allowing these single strands to hybridize (bind) with complementary strands from another DNA sample.

Foldit is an online game and scientific research project developed by researchers at the University of Washington. It was launched in 2008 and is designed to help study protein folding, a complex biological process that is crucial for understanding many diseases and developing new medications. In the game, players are tasked with folding proteins into their optimal shapes using interactive tools. As players manipulate the protein structures, they receive feedback on their scores based on how energetically favorable the configurations are.

The Effective Number of Codons (Nc) is a measure used in molecular biology and bioinformatics to quantify the degree of codon usage bias in a set of genes or a genome. It reflects how efficiently a set of codons is used in coding for amino acids in proteins, taking into account the redundancy of the genetic code. Each amino acid is coded by one or more codons (with some amino acids being represented by multiple synonymous codons).

Eukaryotic transcription is the process by which the genetic information encoded in DNA is transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) within the cells of eukaryotic organisms (organisms whose cells have a nucleus, such as animals, plants, fungi, and protists). This process is essential for gene expression, allowing cells to produce proteins that perform various functions.

Expected Progeny Difference (EPD) is a **genetic estimate** used in animal breeding to predict the performance of offspring based on the genetics of their parents. It is particularly common in livestock breeding, including cattle, sheep, and pigs.

An expression vector is a plasmid or other vector used to introduce and express a specific gene within a host cell, often for the purpose of producing a protein. These vectors are essential tools in molecular biology and biotechnology. Key features of expression vectors include: 1. **Promoter Region**: This is a sequence that drives the transcription of the gene of interest. Depending on the host organism (bacteria, yeast, mammalian cells, etc.), different promoters may be used to ensure optimal expression levels.

Fluorescence is a phenomenon in which a substance absorbs light or other electromagnetic radiation and then re-emits light of a longer wavelength. In the life sciences, fluorescence is a powerful and widely used tool for various applications, particularly in the fields of biology, biochemistry, and medical research. Here are some key aspects of fluorescence in the life sciences: 1. **Fluorophores**: Molecules that exhibit fluorescence are called fluorophores.

Genome-wide CRISPR-Cas9 knockout screens are powerful techniques used in genomics and functional genomics to systematically investigate the functions of genes across the entire genome. Here’s an overview of the process and its significance: ### Overview: 1. **CRISPR-Cas9 Technology**: The CRISPR-Cas9 system is a revolutionary gene-editing tool that allows scientists to make precise changes to the DNA of living organisms.

Fragment Molecular Orbital (FMO) theory is a computational approach used in quantum chemistry to analyze and predict the electronic structure and properties of large molecular systems by breaking them down into smaller, more manageable pieces, or "fragments." This method is particularly useful for studying complex molecular assemblies, such as proteins, polymers, and crystals, where dealing with the entire system at once can be computationally prohibitive.

GUIDE-Seq (Genome-wide Unbiased Identification of DNGs Enabled by Sequencing) is a technique used for the detection and identification of double-strand breaks (DSBs) in the genome caused by targeted genome editing methods, such as CRISPR/Cas9. The method is particularly useful for mapping the sites of DSBs generated by CRISPR, allowing researchers to evaluate the specificity and efficiency of gene editing events.

Gene nomenclature refers to the system of naming genes to provide a standardized framework that allows for the consistent identification and classification of genes across different species and studies. This is important because it facilitates communication among researchers, ensures clarity in scientific literature, and helps avoid confusion that can arise from synonyms, orthologs, or different naming conventions.