"Creatures 2" is a life simulation video game that was developed by Creature Labs and published by Mindscape in 1998. It is part of the "Creatures" series, which allows players to care for and breed virtual creatures known as Norns. The game is notable for its use of artificial life technology, enabling Norns to learn, grow, and interact with their environment autonomously.

The Representer Theorem is a fundamental result in the field of machine learning and functional analysis, particularly in the context of regularized empirical risk minimization problems. It provides a bridge between high-dimensional data and solutions in a reproducing kernel Hilbert space (RKHS). ### Key Concepts: 1. **Empirical Risk Minimization:** This is the process of minimizing the empirical risk (or training error) over a dataset.

A **semigroup action** is a mathematical concept that generalizes the idea of a group action. It provides a way to describe how elements of a semigroup interact with a set. In a semigroup action, an element of the semigroup can be thought of as "acting" on the elements of a set, but unlike group actions, which require the presence of inverses due to the existence of a group structure, semigroup actions operate under weaker conditions.

The Threshold Theorem, often discussed in the context of social choice theory, economics, and political science, generally refers to principles about how individual preferences aggregate into collective decisions.

In the context of cryptography, "code" refers to a method of transforming information in such a way that only authorized parties can understand the original message. Codes are used to conceal the meaning of a message by substituting parts of the message (like words or phrases) with other words, phrases, or symbols. ### Key Features of Codes in Cryptography: 1. **Substitution**: A code replaces words or phrases with predetermined codewords.

Code signing is a security mechanism used to ensure the integrity and authenticity of software or code. It involves the use of cryptographic techniques, specifically digital signatures, to verify that a piece of software has not been altered or tampered with after it was created and is indeed from a legitimate source. Here's how code signing works: 1. **Generating a Key Pair**: The developer generates a public-private key pair. The private key is kept secure, while the public key can be distributed widely.

Crypto-anarchism is a political and philosophical movement that combines elements of anarchism with the principles of cryptography and privacy technology. It advocates for the use of cryptographic tools and techniques to support individual freedom, autonomy, and privacy in the digital age, while opposing state control and surveillance. Key tenets of crypto-anarchism include: 1. **Privacy and Anonymity**: Crypto-anarchists emphasize the importance of personal privacy and the right to communicate and transact anonymously.

Cryptography, the science of encoding and decoding information, has a rich history that spans thousands of years. Here's an overview of its development through different periods: ### Ancient Times - **Egyptians (circa 1900 BCE)**: The earliest known use of cryptographic techniques was in ancient Egypt, where hieroglyphs were used to encode messages. - **Greek and Roman Periods**: The Greeks used simple substitution ciphers, such as the Atbash cipher.

A Wiggers diagram is a graphical representation of the cardiac cycle, illustrating the relationship between various physiological parameters during one complete heartbeat. Named after the physiologist Carl J. Wiggers, the diagram is particularly useful for understanding how the electrical events of the heart (represented by the electrocardiogram, or ECG) correlate with mechanical events (like heart muscle contractions), as well as blood pressures in different chambers of the heart and vascular system.

A covalent bond is a type of chemical bond that involves the sharing of electron pairs between atoms. This sharing allows each atom to attain the electron configuration of a noble gas, resulting in greater stability for the bonded atoms. Covalent bonds typically form between nonmetal atoms, where the difference in electronegativity is not significant enough to create ionic bonds. In a covalent bond, each shared pair of electrons constitutes one bond: - A single bond involves one pair of shared electrons (e.

A peptide bond is a type of covalent bond that forms between two amino acids during protein synthesis. This bond occurs when the carboxyl group of one amino acid reacts with the amino group of another, releasing a molecule of water (this process is known as a dehydration synthesis or condensation reaction). Once formed, the peptide bond creates a dipeptide, and as more amino acids join in the same fashion, polypeptides and proteins are formed.

The Embedded Atom Model (EAM) is a computational model used to describe the interatomic interactions in metals and alloys. It is particularly effective for simulating the properties of metallic systems, including their structure, mechanical behavior, and thermodynamics. ### Key Features of the Embedded Atom Model: 1. **Embedding Function**: The EAM is based on the idea that the energy of an atom is not only determined by its nearest neighbors but also by how those neighbors are arranged.

Ligand field theory (LFT) is a theoretical framework used in coordination chemistry to describe the electronic structure and properties of transition metal complexes. It builds upon and extends the concepts of crystal field theory (CFT), which focuses on the impact of surrounding ligands (molecules or ions that coordinate to a metal center) on the d-orbital energies of transition metals.

Molecular Orbital (MO) Theory is a fundamental theoretical framework in chemistry that describes the electronic structure of molecules by considering the combination of atomic orbitals to form molecular orbitals. Unlike Valence Bond (VB) Theory, which emphasizes localized bonds between pairs of atoms, MO Theory provides a more delocalized view of electrons in a molecule.

In chemistry, a "radical" refers to an atom, molecule, or ion that has unpaired electrons. These unpaired electrons can make radicals highly reactive species because they tend to seek out other electrons to achieve a stable electron configuration. Radicals can be formed through various processes, including chemical reactions (e.g., homolytic bond cleavage), photochemical reactions (involving light), and thermal reactions (involving heat).

A sigma bond (σ bond) is a type of covalent bond that is formed when two atomic orbitals overlap directly along the axis connecting the two nuclei of the bonding atoms. This overlap allows for a strong bond due to the effective sharing of electrons between the atoms. Key characteristics of sigma bonds include: 1. **Formation**: Sigma bonds can form from the head-on overlap of different types of orbitals, such as s-s, s-p, or p-p orbitals.

In chemistry, "stacking" typically refers to a type of intermolecular interaction that occurs between aromatic compounds, where the planar structures of aromatic rings are aligned parallel to one another. This interaction is often discussed in the context of π-π (pi-pi) stacking, which is a significant factor in the stability and properties of molecular structures, including DNA bases, polymers, and various organic compounds. **Key Points:** 1.