 Pressure

Pressure measures the compressive normal force per unit surface area. For a uniformly loaded surface of surface area $A$, the magnitude of the perpendicular force is $F_{\perp }=PA$; locally, $P=d{F}_{\perp }/dA$. Its SI unit is the pascal, $1\mathrm{Pa}=1\mathrm{N}{\mathrm{m}}^{-2}$. A force parallel to the surface contributes shear stress, rather than pressure. In a gas, the steady macroscopic force comes from many microscopic transfers of momentum; ideal gas pressure from wall collisions makes this connection explicit. ^[ref]

For a computed example, a uniform pressure of $100\mathrm{kPa}$ on a piston of surface area $10\mathrm{c}{\mathrm{m}}^2=10^{-3}{\mathrm{m}}^2$ produces a perpendicular force of $100\mathrm{N}$. If the opposite face is exposed to $80\mathrm{kPa}$, the net force due to the two pressures is $(100-80)\times 10^3\times 10^{-3}=20\mathrm{N}$, directed toward the lower-pressure side. The pressure on either face and their difference answer different questions; gauge pressure records a difference from a specified reference, often atmospheric pressure.

A scalar pressure describes a gas in local thermodynamic equilibrium with isotropic random particle velocities: every wall orientation has the same normal force per unit surface area. Without this isotropy, normal stresses can depend on direction and a pressure tensor is needed. Thus random motion alone is insufficient; a preferred direction matters.

In thermodynamics, pressure and volume are thermodynamic conjugate variables. For a simple compressible system, reversible expansion delivers work $\delta W=PdV$, and at fixed entropy $S$ and particle number $N$,where $U$ is internal energy. A large pressure therefore means both a large wall force per unit surface area and a large amount of expansion work per small increase in volume.

Pressure is defined as the force exerted per unit area on a surface. It is a scalar quantity, meaning it has magnitude but no direction. The formula to calculate pressure (P) is: \[ P = \frac{F}{A} \] where: - \( P \) is the pressure, - \( F \) is the force applied, - \( A \) is the area over which the force is distributed.