The "Promise Problem" refers to a class of decision problems in computational complexity that involves promises — that is, certain guarantees about the input. Specifically, it's related to a decision problem where the input is guaranteed to satisfy one of several conditions (or "promises"), but not necessarily all. In more formal terms, a promise problem can be defined as a pair of languages \( L_1 \) and \( L_2 \).

Algerian mathematics refers to the contributions to mathematics made by Algerian mathematicians, as well as the mathematical education and developments in Algeria, particularly after its independence in 1962. This field of study encompasses various areas of mathematics, including pure mathematics, applied mathematics, statistics, and mathematical education. Algerian mathematicians have made significant contributions across various disciplines, including algebra, analysis, geometry, and number theory, among others.

An abacus is a simple counting tool used for performing arithmetic calculations. It consists of a frame holding a series of rods or wires, each strung with beads or disks that can be moved. The design and configuration of the abacus can vary, but it typically allows users to represent numbers and perform basic operations like addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. The abacus has ancient origins and has been used in various cultures, including the Chinese, Greeks, and Romans.

The 19th century was a pivotal period in the development of mathematics, characterized by significant advances in various fields. Here are some notable contributions and developments from that era: 1. **Foundations of Modern Mathematics**: The 19th century saw efforts to establish a more rigorous foundation for mathematics. Key figures included: - **Georg Cantor**, who developed set theory and introduced concepts like cardinality and ordinality.

Analytic theology is a contemporary movement within Christian theology that applies the methods and tools of analytic philosophy to theological questions and concepts. It seeks to clarify and rigorously analyze theological ideas using precise language, logical reasoning, and systematic argumentation. This approach often emphasizes clarity, coherence, and the use of formal logic to evaluate theological claims.

Andy Clark is a prominent philosopher and cognitive scientist known for his work in philosophy of mind, cognitive science, and artificial intelligence. He is particularly recognized for his contributions to the concepts of extended mind and predictive processing. Clark's extended mind hypothesis posits that the mind is not confined to the brain but extends into the body and the environment, suggesting that tools, technology, and social interactions can be integral parts of human cognition.

Brian Davies is a philosopher known for his work in the fields of philosophy of religion and medieval philosophy, especially concerning the thought of figures like Thomas Aquinas. He has written extensively on topics such as the existence of God, the nature of religious belief, and the intersection of faith and reason. His work often explores traditional arguments for and against the existence of God, as well as the implications of various philosophical viewpoints on religious thought.

Charles Stevenson (1908–1979) was an American philosopher best known for his work in the field of ethics and metaethics. He is particularly noted for his development of "emotivism," a theory of moral language that suggests that ethical statements do not primarily convey factual information but instead express emotional attitudes or reactions. Stevenson's influential book, "Ethics and Language" (1944), argues that moral judgments are expressions of preference or emotion rather than objective truths.

Christian Barry is a philosopher known for his work in social and political philosophy, particularly focusing on issues related to justice, responsibility, and the role of institutions in shaping social outcomes. He has contributed to discussions on topics such as collective responsibility and the ethics of global justice. Barry has also co-authored various works and is involved in academic discussions regarding moral philosophy and public policy.

Constantine Sandis is a philosopher known for his work in philosophy of mind, epistemology, and the philosophy of action. He is recognized for his contributions to discussions surrounding notions of belief, intention, and agency. Sandis has also written on topics such as the nature of human action and the interrelation of belief and intention in understanding human behavior. His work often explores the implications of these philosophical concepts in both historical and contemporary contexts.

David Wiggins is a prominent British philosopher known for his work in metaphysics, philosophy of language, philosophy of action, and ethics. He has contributed significantly to discussions on personal identity, the nature of truth, and the relationship between language and reality. Wiggins is particularly noted for his exploration of the concepts of identity and the principles that govern it. He has published various influential works and has been associated with debates around realism, normative ethics, and the nature of human beings.

Gualtiero Piccinini is a philosopher and cognitive scientist known for his work at the intersection of philosophy of mind, cognitive science, and computational theory. He has contributed to discussions on topics such as consciousness, the nature of cognitive processes, and the implications of computationalism in understanding the mind. His research often bridges the gap between philosophical analysis and empirical findings in cognitive science.

H. H. Price, or Harry Helenus Price (1899–1984), was a British philosopher best known for his work in epistemology and the philosophy of language. He made significant contributions to discussions about perception, memory, and the nature of reality, particularly in relation to issues such as the nature of objects and the theory of reference.