On a positive-definite Hilbert space, these two identities imply $\Vert Q\psi {\Vert }^2=⟨\psi ,Q^2\psi ⟩=0$, hence $Q=0$ on its invariant domain. A nontrivial covariant BRST charge therefore acts before reduction on an indefinite-inner-product gauge/ghost space. Exact vectors are null and orthogonal to closed vectors, and BRST cohomology quotients them out. Positivity of the reduced physical space requires the additional gauge-theory structure; it does not follow from abstract nilpotence alone.

For Brownian motion started at zero in dimension three, let ${\sigma }_R$ be its first hit of the sphere of radius $R>r$. The optional stopping theorem applied to $|B_t{|}^2-3t$ proves that ${\sigma }_R$ is finite almost surely. The Strong Markov property and the Brownian sphere-hitting probability in dimension three then give the displayed return probability. Choose radii $R_m=2^{m}r$. The return events after ${\sigma }_{R_m}$ decrease and their probabilities tend to zero. Almost surely one of these exit times is followed by no visit to the closed ball of radius $r$. Apply this to all positive integer $r$ to obtain $|B_t|\to \infty$ almost surely. This gives full transience of Brownian motion in dimension at least three, rather than only a positive escape probability.

Let $f$ be positive, continuous and nondecreasing, with ${\int }_0^{1}f(t)dt/t<\infty$. The small-value probability for the Brownian running maximum is at most a constant times the value. Brownian scaling and dyadic integral comparison make the exceptional probabilities $\mathbb{P}(S_{2^{-n-1}}<2^{-n/2}f(2^{-n}))$ summable. The Borel-Cantelli first lemma and monotonicity interpolate between dyadic times. Apply this argument to $mf$ for every positive integer $m$ on a countable intersection of probability-one events to obtain the infinite lower limit.

For $a>0$ and $t>0$, the distribution function is $\Phi ((a-\nu t)/\sqrt{t})-e^{2a\nu }\Phi ((-a-\nu t)/\sqrt{t})$. The Brownian reflection principle gives the zero-drift terminal density below the barrier as ${\varphi }_t(y)-{\varphi }_t(2a-y)$ for $y<a$. Weight it by $e^{\nu y-{\nu }^{2}t/2}$ using the Girsanov theorem and complete squares in the two Gaussian integrals.

For Brownian motion, write the later maximum as $B_b+Z+H$, where $Z=B_c-B_b$ has a nondegenerate normal distribution and $H={\sup }_{0\le u\le d-c}(B_{c+u}-B_c)$. The independent increments make $Z$ independent of the earlier history and of $H$. Conditional on those two objects, equality of the two maxima prescribes one value of $Z$, an event of probability zero. This argument uses the positive gap $c-b$ and does not assume independence of the two absolute maxima.

Stop the Exponential martingale for Brownian motion $e^{\theta B_s-{\theta }^{2}s/2}$ when $B$ first reaches $\delta$ or at $t$. On the hitting event its value is at least $e^{\theta \delta -{\theta }^{2}t/2}$, so that event has probability at most $e^{-\theta \delta +{\theta }^{2}t/2}$. Minimize over $\theta >0$ and apply the same bound to $-B$. The union bound gives the displayed inequality for $t>0$; at zero the probability is zero.

For $d\ge 3$, fixed $x\ne 0$ and $t>0$, apply optional stopping to $u(B_{t\wedge T_{\epsilon }})$ with $u(z)=|z{|}^{2-d}$. The resulting identity is ${\epsilon }^{2-d}{\mathbb{P}}_x(T_{\epsilon }\le t)=u(x)-\mathbb{E}u(B_t)+\mathbb{E}[u(B_t);T_{\epsilon }\le t]$. The last term tends to zero by integrability of $u(B_t)$ and the vanishing total hitting probability. The Newtonian potential of the Brownian heat kernel identifies the remaining difference.

The Brownian first-passage subordinator has a countable dense set of jump levels almost surely, and is continuous at every other level. Its paths are finite nondecreasing functions, so on a bounded level interval there can be only finitely many jumps larger than any fixed positive size; a countable union proves countability. For density, suppose its path were continuous throughout an open level interval. It is strictly increasing, since the original continuous Brownian path takes different values at different passage times. Its continuous inverse on that interval would parametrize a positive-length time interval on which the Brownian path increases monotonically. This contradicts nowhere monotonicity of Brownian motion. Thus every level interval contains a jump. In particular dense discontinuities do not mean that the path is nowhere continuous: it is continuous at every level outside a countable random set.

Successive exits from intervals of radius $a$ around the current position embed a simple symmetric random walk into Brownian motion. The Strong Markov property makes the durations independent with common law $a^2{\sigma }_1$; the displacements divided by $a$ are independent symmetric signs. The displacement sequence is independent across exits; no independence between a given displacement and its duration is needed for these conclusions.

For standard Brownian motion started at zero and exit time $T$ from $(-b,a)$, $a,b>0$, stop the two exponential Brownian martingales with parameters $\lambda$ and $-\lambda$. Their stopped values are bounded by $e^{|\lambda |\max (a,b)}$. The optional stopping theorem and dominated convergence theorem give $e^{\lambda a}p+e^{-\lambda b}q=1$ and $e^{-\lambda a}p+e^{\lambda b}q=1$, where $p,q$ are the discounted upper and lower exit probabilities. Solving gives the displayed formula and $q=\sinh (\lambda a)/\sinh (\lambda (a+b))$. ThusAt $\lambda =0$, the first ratio has its removable value $b/(a+b)$, and the second equals one. Finiteness of $T$ follows from a uniformly positive one-unit-time chance to leave any fixed bounded interval.

For the whole-line equation $A_t+a_1{A}_{xx}+a_2{A}_{xxxx}+a_{3}A=0$ with $\mathrm{Re}{a}_2>0$, the dispersion relation is $s=a_1{k}^2-a_2{k}^4-a_3$. The temporal Laplace transform of the impulse response at zero is the real-k integral of $[s+a_3-a_1{k}^2+a_2{k}^4{]}^{-1}/(2\pi )$. Factor the denominator as $a_2(k^2+{\kappa }_1^2)(k^2+{\kappa }_2^2)$ with $\mathrm{Re}{\kappa }_j>0$ for large $\mathrm{Re}s$. Partial fractions give the displayed resolvent. Square-root sheets are chosen by continuation from this causal large-s region; choosing roots independently can introduce false spatial pinch points.

For $\omega (k)=i\alpha k^2-\beta k^3-i\gamma$, real-wavenumber growth is $\mathrm{Re}\alpha k^2-\mathrm{Im}\beta k^3-\mathrm{Re}\gamma$. A nonzero cubic coefficient is unbounded above on one side; after it vanishes, a positive quadratic coefficient is unbounded above on both sides. The displayed conditions are therefore necessary and sufficient for a finite temporal upper bound, which is then $-\mathrm{Re}\gamma$. The bound permits the initial causal temporal contour required by the Briggs-Bers criterion.

Suppose every nonidentity element of a finite group $K$ is either a pi-element or an element for complementary primes. An elementary subgroup cannot have nontrivial factors of both kinds, since the product of nonidentity commuting coprime-order elements would have mixed prime order. Choose an integer $d$ congruent to $1$ modulo $|K{|}_{\pi }$ and to $0$ modulo $|K{|}_{{\pi }^{\prime }}$. Set $f(1)=d$, $f=1$ on nonidentity pi-elements and $f=0$ on the other nonidentity elements. On each elementary subgroup this is an integer combination of the trivial and regular characters. Brauer's characterization of characters supplies the asserted generalized character.

For a $p$-subgroup $P$, the Brauer quotient removes all fixed vectors produced by proper-subgroup relative traces. On a permutation module it has a basis of the permutation-basis elements fixed by $P$: nonsingleton orbit sums are traces and disappear. The construction commutes with direct sums and idempotent projections. For an indecomposable trivial source module, it is nonzero exactly when a vertex contains a conjugate of $P$.

For a normal p-subgroup $P◃G$, every central idempotent $e$ of $kG$ satisfies $e={\mathrm{Br}}_P(e)\in k{C}_G(P)$. Indeed a nonfixed conjugation orbit sum maps to zero in $k(G/P)$, so $e-{\mathrm{Br}}_P(e)$ belongs to the nilpotent ideal $J(kP)kG$. Normality makes the Brauer image a central idempotent of $kG$, and two central idempotents congruent modulo a nilpotent ideal coincide. Consequently the blocks of a group algebra of $kG$ correspond to $G$-orbits of blocks of $k{C}_G(P)$.

For a central idempotent $e$, a module $M=eM$, and $C_G(D)\le K\le N_G(D)$, put $b={\mathrm{Br}}_D(e)$. Then $M{\downarrow }_K=bM\oplus (1-b)M$, and every indecomposable summand of the second term has vertex not containing $D$. Indeed $e-b$ is a sum of $K$-orbit sums of group elements not centralizing $D$. Each is a relative trace from a centralizer not containing $D$. Applying these traces to the module and using the local endomorphism ring of an indecomposable summand proves relative projectivity for one such subgroup.

Let $b$ be a block of a group algebra of $kH$ with defect group of a block $D$, where $D{C}_G(D)\le H\le G$. Apply Brauer first main theorem inside $H$ to obtain its correspondent in $N_H(D)$. Composing that correspondent's central character of a block with the Brauer morphism from $Z(kG)$ selects a unique block of a group algebra $b^G$. It is the unique block of a group algebra whose restriction to $H\times H$ contains the block bimodule $b$ as a direct summand. Its defect group of a block can be larger than $D$ when $H$ does not contain $N_G(D)$.

If a block of a group algebra $b$ of $kH$ has defect group of a block $D$ and $D{C}_G(D)\le H\le G$, then its block induction $b^G$ is the principal block if and only if $b$ is the principal block. Equivalently, the Brauer morphism of the principal block idempotent at any p-subgroup $Q$ is the principal block idempotent of $k{C}_G(Q)$.

The Brauer correspondent of a block of a group algebra with defect group of a block $D$ in $G$ is the corresponding block of $N_G(D)$ furnished by Brauer first main theorem. The more general induced block $b^G$ is defined by block induction when the subgroup contains the centralizer of a defect group of $b$.

In characteristic zero with algebraically closed constants, a local unit has a square root. Thus $K(T)(\sqrt{a})$ near a point is equivalent to adjoining the square root of the local parameter to the power $v_p(a)$. Even order is unramified; odd order gives ramification index two. For a polynomial $a$, its order at infinity is minus its degree, so infinity branches exactly for odd degree.