At level $\alpha$, a most powerful test against a specified simple alternative maximises statistical power among statistical tests whose size of a statistical test is at most $\alpha$. The Neyman-Pearson lemma constructs it by a likelihood ratio threshold. A uniformly most powerful test is most powerful simultaneously against every member of the specified alternative family; maximising power at one alternative alone need not give uniform optimality.

For a string, this local static gauge identifies two embedding coordinates with the worldsheet coordinates, $X^0=t$ and $X^1=\sigma$. The remaining coordinates describe a graph over that coordinate plane. Folded embeddings may require more than one patch.

At fixed string normalization $C={\rho }_s{a}^2$, scale-factor shifts move between static solutions and are neutral, with no restoring force. The acceleration equation gives $\ddot{a}=0$, but the Friedmann constraint also imposes ${\dot{a}}^2=8\pi GC/3-K$. At the static normalization it excludes a nonzero velocity. A slightly larger $C$ admits linearly expanding or contracting branches; a smaller $C$ admits no real closed solution. This distinguishes permitted perturbations from constraint violations.

For the boundary convention $-1/2<\mathrm{Re}z\le 1/2$, retaining only the right half of the unit circle, the exceptional points are $i$ and ${\rho }_{+}=e^{i\pi /3}$. Their stabilizers in $S{L}_2(\mathbb{Z})$ are the cyclic groups generated by $\left(\begin{array}{cc}0& -1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)$ and $\left(\begin{array}{cc}1& -1\\ 1& 0\end{array}\right)$, of orders four and six. Every other stabilizer is $\{I,-I\}$.

A probability distribution is strictly stable with index $\alpha$ if $n^{-1/\alpha }(T^{(1)}+\cdots +T^{(n)})\stackrel{d}{=}T$ for every positive integer $n$, for independent copies. Here no centering term is allowed, unlike in the general definition of a stable distribution.

The squared distance to a convex set is the infimal convolution of the set's indicator functional of a constraint set and the half-squared Hilbert space norm. Its convex conjugate is the sum of the half-squared norm and the support function of the set.

The Clifford algebra gives $S^{\mu \nu }=\frac{1}{2}{\gamma }^{\mu }{\gamma }^{\nu }-\frac{1}{2}{\eta }^{\mu \nu }I$. Reordering one more gamma matrix gives $[S^{\mu \nu },{\gamma }^{\rho }]={\eta }^{\nu \rho }{\gamma }^{\mu }-{\eta }^{\mu \rho }{\gamma }^{\nu }$. The commutator derivation identity then givesso these matrices represent the Lorentz algebra. This convention has no extra factor of $i$; the spatial generators are $-\frac{i}{2}{ϵ}^{jkl}\mathrm{diag}({\sigma }^l,{\sigma }^l)$.

For a Dirac spinor a spatial rotation acts in each chiral block by a matrix exponential $e^{\pm i\theta \mathbf{n}\cdot \mathbf{\sigma }/2}$, depending on angle orientation. Since $(\mathbf{n}\cdot \mathbf{\sigma }{)}^2=I_2$ for a unit axis, the Pauli matrix multiplication law gives this exponential as $\cos (\theta /2)I_2\pm i\sin (\theta /2)\mathbf{n}\cdot \mathbf{\sigma }$. At $\theta =2\pi$ it is $-I_2$, and at $4\pi$ it is $I_2$. A vector returns already at $2\pi$. This describes the lift of the rotation loop to the Spin group, rather than a single-valued representation of the ordinary rotation group on spinors.

For the spin inversion symmetry parameterization $W=c\left(\begin{array}{ccc}1& x& y\\ x& z& x\\ y& x& 1\end{array}\right)$ with positive entries, spin decimation gives the same form with $x^{\prime }=x(1+y+z)/(1+x^2+y^2)$, $y^{\prime }=(x^2+2y)/(1+x^2+y^2)$ and $z^{\prime }=(z^2+2x^2)/(1+x^2+y^2)$. Multiply $W$ by itself and divide by its $(+,+)$ entry to prove these ratios. The leftover scalar is an additive free-energy coupling; dropping it leaves normalized expectations unchanged but loses the full free energy.

The support of a finite vector is the set of indices of its nonzero coordinates. It is the support of a function on a finite discrete index set, and its cardinality defines sparsity.

If $Au=f$ and $A^{\ast }\mu \in \partial J(u)$, then $u$ is a J-minimizing solution. For every other exact solution $v$, the subgradient inequality gives $J(v)\ge J(u)+⟨\mu ,Av-Au⟩=J(u)$. This is a certificate of global optimality supplied by the range of the adjoint operator.

A meridian of a solid torus is a primitive curve on its boundary that bounds an embedded disk in the solid torus.

The liquid fraction is the volume fraction occupied by liquid in a solid–liquid mixture. For a saturated rigid mushy layer, it is the porosity available to Darcy flux.

If $u\in W_{\mathrm{loc}}^{1,2}$, then $Du=0$ almost everywhere on every level set $\{u=t\}$. Choose smooth truncations ${\Phi }_{\epsilon }(s)$ with $|{\Phi }_{\epsilon }|\le 2\epsilon$, derivative one near zero, bounded derivative, and derivative zero outside $(-2\epsilon ,2\epsilon )$. The Sobolev chain rule gives $D{\Phi }_{\epsilon }(u-t)\to 1_{\{u=t\}}Du$ in local $L^2$ by dominated convergence theorem, while ${\Phi }_{\epsilon }(u-t)\to 0$. The limiting weak derivative is therefore zero.

The Adjoint double cover from SU(2) to SO(3) has kernel $\{I,-I\}$. Under SU(2) as the three-sphere, multiplication by $-I$ is the antipodal map, so the quotient is Real projective space ${\mathbb{RP}}^3$. Equivalently, an axis-angle ball of radius $\pi$ has opposite boundary points identified. The fundamental group is ${\mathbb{Z}}_2$.

For $\lambda >0$ and at least two distinct design points, the unique $C^2[a,b]$ minimizer of squared residuals plus $\lambda J(g)$ is $N(I+\lambda \Gamma {)}^{-1}\mathbf{Y}$. The minimum roughness property of the natural cubic spline interpolant reduces the optimization to the value vector. The matrix $I+\lambda \Gamma$ is a positive-definite matrix, so the normal equations have a unique solution; the interpolation equality case gives uniqueness as a function. Linear tails are part of the natural boundary convention.

A smooth rational curve with self-intersection $-1$ on a smooth projective surface over an algebraically closed field contracts to a smooth point of another smooth projective surface. The contraction is a birational morphism and an isomorphism off the curve, with inverse a blowup of a smooth algebraic surface. This algebraic criterion is valid in arbitrary characteristic and should not be confused with Castelnuovo's rationality criterion.

For radius $b$, arc length $L$, tangent angle $\varphi$ to the horizontal plane, and local drag coefficient $C$, resistive-force theory givesThe sign of $B$ selects the handedness convention. With the force exerted on the fluid taken positive, $AD-B^2=C^2{L}^2{b}^2/2>0$. Translation-rotation coupling supplies propulsion for a rotating helical microswimmer with a spherical head.

For $\kappa >0$, $\rho >0$, let $J_t=|g_t^{\prime }(z)|$, $S_t=\sin {\theta }_t$ and ${{\rm Y}}_t=Y_t/J_t$. Thenis a positive continuous local martingale before the Loewner swallowing time. Indeed the Itô formula gives $d\log J_t=-2(X_t^2-Y_t^2)|Z_t{|}^{-4}dt$, $d\log {{\rm Y}}_t=-4Y_t^2|Z_t{|}^{-4}dt$, andCombining the exponents cancels the drift of $M_t$, including the quadratic-variation correction, leaving $d{M}_t/M_t=-\rho X_t/(\sqrt{\kappa }|Z_t{|}^2)d{B}_t$.

For a fixed interior point and parameter four, the SLE angle process has zero drift and satisfies ${\theta }_t=\arg z+2{\int }_0^t{Y}_s|Z_s{|}^{-2}d{B}_s$. Its values in $(0,\pi )$ make this continuous local martingale a true bounded martingale. The identity $\log ({{\rm Y}}_t/{{\rm Y}}_0)=-[\theta {]}_t$, together with the Dambis-Dubins-Schwarz theorem, prevents its Loewner conformal radius from vanishing at a finite lifetime. Since the parameter-four trace is simple and does not meet the real boundary at positive times, finite swallowing would require a visit to the point and vanishing radius. Thus its Loewner swallowing time is infinite almost surely. This gives a global continuous bounded martingale, not just one defined before swallowing.