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Dark energy is a smooth component with sufficiently negative pressure to drive accelerated cosmic expansion. The supernova discovery of accelerating expansion measures an expansion history through luminosity distance; interpreting that history as a component of the stress tensor additionally assumes general relativity. A cosmological constant is one possibility, whereas dynamical dark energy permits a changing equation-of-state parameter.

Neglect radiation in cosmology and take pressureless matter plus a separately conserved dark energy component with $p_{\mathrm{DE}}=w{\rho }_{\mathrm{DE}}{c}^2$, where $\rho$ here denotes mass-equivalent energy density. The Friedmann acceleration equation givesThus $w<-1/3$ for a positive-density component is necessary for that component to accelerate expansion, but the total must also overcome pressureless matter. For a cosmological constant, $w=-1$ and $q_0={\Omega }_{m,0}/2-{\Omega }_{\Lambda ,0}$, so acceleration requires ${\Omega }_{\Lambda ,0}>{\Omega }_{m,0}/2$. Spatial curvature of an FLRW universe enters the distance relation but has no separate term in this acceleration criterion. A Hubble diagram alone does not identify a microscopic dark energy mechanism.

Use the negative curvature convention defined in curvature-sign convention in Killing derivative identities, and $C_{ab}=C^c{}_{acb}$. Covariant derivatives of a vector obey $[{\nabla }_b,{\nabla }^a]A^b=-C^a{}_b{A}^b$. Hence the flat-space equivalent expressions $\square A^a-{\partial }_b{\partial }^a{A}^b$ and $\square A^a-{\partial }^a{\partial }_b{A}^b$ acquire a difference $+C^a{}_b{A}^b$ under the comma-to-semicolon prescription. Covariantizing $F_{ab}=2{\nabla }_{[a}{A}_{b]}$ and its Maxwell equations gives $\square A^a-{\nabla }^a({\nabla }_b{A}^b)+C^a{}_b{A}^b={\mu }_0{J}^a$. This form respects gauge invariance. Dropping the Ricci term is generally not gauge invariant. The two expressions coincide in a Ricci-flat vacuum spacetime; vanishing matter alone with nonzero cosmological constant does not imply Ricci flatness.

For pressureless matter with zero cosmological constant, the Friedmann acceleration equation gives $q=4\pi G\rho /(3H^2)={\Omega }_m/2$. Spatial curvature need not vanish. Consequently $k{c}^2/a^2=(2q-1)H^2$; this relation does not hold for a general fluid mixture.

With the metric and stress-energy tensor fixed and zero cosmological constant, changing the sign convention for the Riemann curvature tensor changes the signs of the Ricci tensor, scalar curvature and Einstein tensor. The same physical field equation is therefore written with the opposite coupling sign. For signature $(+---)$, the convention $R^a{}_{bcd}={\partial }_d{\Gamma }_{bc}^a-{\partial }_c{\Gamma }_{bd}^a-{\Gamma }_{ec}^a{\Gamma }_{bd}^e+{\Gamma }_{ed}^a{\Gamma }_{bc}^e$ and $R_{ab}=R^c{}_{acb}$ gives $R_{00}\simeq -\Delta \Phi$ in a static Newtonian limit. The trace-reversed equation and $\Delta \Phi =4\pi G\rho$ then require $G_{ab}=-8\pi G{T}_{ab}$.

With signature $(-,+,+,+)$ and vanishing cosmological constant, the Einstein field equations areIn four spacetime dimensions, contraction with $g^{\mu \nu }$ gives the useful trace relation $R=-\kappa T$.

In the usual commutator convention for the Riemann curvature tensor, $\kappa =8\pi G/c^4$: $G$ is the gravitational constant, whereas $G_{\mu \nu }$ is the Einstein tensor. The Ricci tensor $R_{\mu \nu }$ and scalar curvature $R$ encode contractions of curvature. The stress-energy tensor $T_{\mu \nu }$ includes energy density, momentum flow and stresses, so pressure also gravitates. A cosmological constant adds $\Lambda g_{\mu \nu }$ to the left-hand side. See Tong's Einstein equations and matter coupling.

For a concrete consequence, set $T_{\mu \nu }=0$ and $\Lambda =0$. The trace gives $R=0$, and substitution gives $R_{\mu \nu }=0$. Yet the exterior Schwarzschild spacetime still has the tidal forces computed under geodesic deviation: vanishing Ricci tensor does not imply vanishing Riemann curvature tensor. Geometry carries gravitational effects through empty space. Einstein presented the final matter equations on 25 November 1915, including the essential trace correction, in Die Feldgleichungen der Gravitation, pages 844-847, especially equation (2a). His symbols and sign conventions differ from modern ones; the displayed formula uses modern notation.

Every four-dimensional Einstein metric with $R_{ab}=\Lambda g_{ab}$ has constant Ricci scalar $R=4\Lambda$. The vacuum metric f(R) gravity tensor reduces to $(\Lambda f^{\prime }(4\Lambda )-f(4\Lambda )/2)g_{ab}$, giving the displayed necessary and sufficient condition for a fixed cosmological constant. Both function and derivative may vanish, so division by $f^{\prime }$ is unnecessary. Requiring this for all real $\Lambda$ and a smooth $f$ instead yields $f(R)=C{R}^2$.

For positive constant cosmological constant, zero cosmological spatial curvature and a separate positive-density fluid with constant equation-of-state parameter $w>-1$, set $H_{\Lambda }=\sqrt{\Lambda /3}$ in the time-unit convention. Eliminating the fluid density gives $\dot{H}=-3(1+w)(H^2-H_{\Lambda }^2)/2$. On the expanding Big Bang branch,The origin is the Big Bang. The fluid's early-time power-law expansion approaches exponential vacuum domination at late times.

For pressureless matter and a positive cosmological constant in a spatially flat universe, $H^2=H_0^2[{\Omega }_{m0}{a}^{-3}+1-{\Omega }_{m0}]$. Substituting $y=a^{3/2}$ reduces the expanding branch to $\dot{y}=(3H_0/2)\sqrt{{\Omega }_{m0}+(1-{\Omega }_{m0})y^2}$. With $a(0)=0$, integration gives $a=[{\Omega }_{m0}/(1-{\Omega }_{m0}){]}^{1/3}{\sinh }^{2/3}(3H_0\sqrt{1-{\Omega }_{m0}}t/2)$. Its matter-dominated early limit is $t^{2/3}$ and its vacuum-dominated late limit is exponential. Radiation must be restored to describe the actual earliest universe.

For pressureless matter, put $C=8\pi G{\rho }_m{a}^3/3>0$ and use units $c=1$. The flat Friedmann equation is ${\dot{a}}^2=C/a+\Lambda a^2/3$. Substitution $u=a^{3/2}$ gives ${\dot{u}}^2=(9/4)(C+\Lambda u^2/3)$. With a Big Bang at $t=0$, positive cosmological constant gives $a=(3C/\Lambda {)}^{1/3}{\sinh }^{2/3}(\sqrt{3\Lambda }t/2)$. Negative cosmological constant replaces the hyperbolic sine by $\sin (\sqrt{3|\Lambda |}t/2)$ and produces recollapse at $2\pi /\sqrt{3|\Lambda |}$. Zero cosmological constant gives $a=(9C/4{)}^{1/3}{t}^{2/3}$.

For pressureless matter, a positive cosmological constant, flat spatial geometry and negligible radiation, the continuity equation gives ${\rho }_m\propto a^{-3}$. Substitution in the Friedmann equation yields the displayed Hubble parameter, with ${\Omega }_{m0}+{\Omega }_{\Lambda 0}=1$. radiation must be restored at early epochs; the formula does not require matter to be the largest present-day density component.

For a perfect fluid in general relativity of constant equation of state $P=w\rho$, conservation gives $\rho ={\rho }_0{a}^{-3(1+w)}$. In units $8\pi G=1$, the Friedmann equation becomes ${\dot{a}}^2/2+V(a)=0$. Allowed scales have $V\le 0$, and the Friedmann acceleration equation is $\ddot{a}=-V^{\prime }(a)$. The curvature term shifts the potential vertically; positive cosmological constant bends it downward and negative cosmological constant bends it upward.

The Goldberger–Wise stabilization mechanism generates a radion potential in the Randall–Sundrum model using a weakly backreacting bulk scalar field. On $0\le y\le L$, its static profile obeys ${\chi }^{\prime \prime }-4k{\chi }^{\prime }-m_{\chi }^2\chi =0$, hence $\chi =A{e}^{(4+ϵ)ky}+B{e}^{-ϵky}$, where $ϵ=\sqrt{4+m_{\chi }^2/k^2}-2$. Boundary potentials approximately fix $\chi (0)=v_0$, $\chi (L)=v_L$. For $ϵ\ll 1$ and $kL\gg 1$, the leading radius-dependent potential is proportional to $e^{-4kL}(v_L-v_0{e}^{-ϵkL}{)}^2$. Its leading minimum satisfies $kL\simeq {ϵ}^{-1}\log (v_0/v_L)$. Thus a modest ratio of boundary values can generate a large warp exponent. Corrections shift this minimum; the approximation requires small scalar field backreaction, and the four-dimensional cosmological constant still needs adjustment.

For dust, curvature and a constant cosmological constant, write $H^2=A{a}^{-3}+B{a}^{-2}+C$. Then $\dot{H}=-3A{a}^{-3}/2-B{a}^{-2}$ and $\ddot{H}=H(9A{a}^{-3}/2+2B{a}^{-2})$, which imply $\ddot{H}+2H\dot{H}-3A{a}^{-3}H/2=0$. Thus $H$ is a solution of the pressureless linear matter perturbation growth equation. In an Einstein-de Sitter universe, $H\propto t^{-1}$ is the decaying mode and the independent growing mode is $t^{2/3}$. Additional dynamical components need not preserve this identity.

In flat general relativity with no separate cosmological constant, a canonical massive scalar has $\rho +3P=2{\dot{\varphi }}^2-m^2{\varphi }^2$. Accelerated expansion therefore requires ${\dot{\varphi }}^2<m^2{\varphi }^2/2$. Initial potential dominance is an instantaneous condition and does not alone fix the duration.

Komar angular momentum is the Komar charge associated with an axial Killing vector field in four-dimensional general relativity. In geometrized units its normalization is $(16\pi {)}^{-1}{\int }_S\star dm$, where $m$ is the metric-dual differential one-form. With zero cosmological constant, vacuum Einstein field equations make $d\star dm=0$, so homologous surrounding surfaces in the vacuum region give the same charge.

With zero cosmological constant and the component Hodge star operator convention $(\star j{)}_{abc}={ϵ}_{abcd}{j}^d$, the Einstein field equations and Killing equation give $d\star dm=-16\pi \star (T_{ab}{m}^b-\frac{1}{2}T{m}_a)$. If $m$ is tangent to a spacelike hypersurface, the trace term pulls back to zero. For $\partial \Sigma =S_{\infty }-{\bigcup }_i{S}_i$, Stokes theorem yieldsThe inner Komar charges cannot be dropped for a vacuum Kerr black hole, whose angular momentum is nonzero although its stress-energy tensor vanishes. A matter-only volume formula requires a regular filling with no inner boundaries.

The Lambda-CDM model combines a cosmological constant with cold dark matter and the standard baryonic and radiation components in an expanding Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric.

Neighboring freely falling comoving particles in a homogeneous Friedmann-Lemaître-Robertson-Walker metric have separation $\mathbf{r}=a(t)\mathbf{\chi }$ and relative acceleration $\ddot{\mathbf{r}}=(\ddot{a}/a)\mathbf{r}$, where $t$ is cosmic time and $\mathbf{\chi }$ is constant. This is a local tidal force effect, of order $H^{2}r$ when the dimensionless background parameters are of order one. In a weak-field central-mass model retaining the homogeneous background tide, one writes $\ddot{r}=-GM/r^2+{\ell }^2/r^3+(\ddot{a}/a)r$. The detailed residual tide depends on the cosmological embedding; a bound orbit is not required to satisfy $\dot{r}=Hr$. Comparing $H^2$ with $GM/r^3$ estimates whether that background tide can affect its dynamics. A locally vacuum region with a cosmological constant has the corresponding outward term $\Lambda c^{2}r/3$.

For separately conserved pressureless matter, ${\rho }_m\propto a^{-3}$. The deceleration parameter identity $\dot{H}/H^2=-(1+q)$ and ${\Omega }_m\propto {\rho }_m/H^2$ give ${\dot{\Omega }}_m=H{\Omega }_m(2q-1)$. A dust-plus-vacuum universe has $q={\Omega }_m/2-{\Omega }_{\Lambda }$; conversion to conformal time yields the displayed flow. The familiar matter-only equation requires negligible cosmological constant. In a spatially flat dust-plus-vacuum universe, ${\Omega }_m+{\Omega }_{\Lambda }=1$ and ${\Omega }_m^{\prime }=-3\mathcal{H}{\Omega }_m{\Omega }_{\Lambda }$, so flatness does not require ${\Omega }_m=1$.