de Sitter spacetime

De Sitter spacetime is the maximally symmetric Lorentzian spacetime of constant positive curvature. Its expanding flat slicing has scale factor $a(\tau )=-1/(H\tau )$ in conformal time $\tau <0$.

With no matter or radiation, $k<0$ and $H_{\Lambda }=\sqrt{\Lambda /3}>0$, the Friedmann equation in units $c=1$ is ${\dot{a}}^2=H_{\Lambda }^2{a}^2-k$. Separating variables on the expanding branch and choosing its coordinate origin at $a=0$ gives the displayed scale factor. Normalization $a(t_0)=1$ imposes $\sinh (H_{\Lambda }{t}_0)=H_{\Lambda }/\sqrt{-k}$ and $H_0^2=H_{\Lambda }^2-k$. The zero of the scale factor is the boundary of this open coordinate patch, rather than a curvature singularity of de Sitter spacetime.

Unit-radius two-dimensional de Sitter spacetime is the hyperboloid $(X^0{)}^2-(X^1{)}^2-(X^2{)}^2=-1$ in three-dimensional Minkowski spacetime. Its closed coordinates are $X^0=\sinh t$, $X^1=\cosh t\cos \chi$, $X^2=\cosh t\sin \chi$, with $t\in \mathbb{R}$ and $\chi$ periodic modulo $2\pi$. Unwrapping $\chi$ gives its universal covering spacetime instead.

The unrestricted spatial coordinate unwraps the spatial circle of two-dimensional de Sitter spacetime. The conformal time $\eta =\arcsin (\tanh t)$ lies in $(-\pi /2,\pi /2)$, and null geodesics have slopes $d\xi /d\eta =\pm 1$. Constant-$\eta$ lines are Cauchy hypersurfaces: along any causal curve $|d\xi /d\eta |\le 1$, so a curve cannot escape to spatial infinity in a bounded conformal-time interval. The covering spacetime is therefore globally hyperbolic, despite its observer-dependent cosmological horizons. Identifying $\xi$ modulo $2\pi$ gives the de Sitter cylinder, also globally hyperbolic.

The conformal time $T=2\arctan (e^t)-\pi /2$ satisfies $\sin T=\tanh t$ and $\cos T=\mathrm{sech}t$. Multiplying the physical metric by ${\cos }^{2}T$ gives a finite conformal compactification with periodic spatial coordinate. Its past and future conformal boundaries are spacelike circles. Null geodesics have slopes $d\chi /dT=\pm 1$.

For the complete observer $\chi =0$ in two-dimensional de Sitter spacetime, let $d(\chi ,0)\in [0,\pi ]$ be shortest angular distance. An event can signal to the observer exactly when $d(\chi ,0)<\pi /2-T$, and can receive its signals exactly when $d(\chi ,0)<T+\pi /2$. Equality describes its future and past observer event horizons. Their intersection is the static patch of de Sitter spacetime containing the observer. These are observer-dependent cosmological horizons; constant-$T$ circles are Cauchy hypersurfaces, so there are no Cauchy horizons in the full spacetime.

A geodesic on the embedded two-dimensional de Sitter spacetime is the intersection with a two-plane through the ambient origin. For initial point $P$ and tangent $V$ satisfying $P^2=-1$, $P\cdot V=0$, $V^2=\epsilon$, its affine parametrization is $P\cosh s+V\sinh s$ when timelike, $P+sV$ when null and $P\cos s+V\sin s$ when spacelike. These solve $X^{\prime \prime }=\epsilon X$. The spacelike geodesics are closed; timelike geodesics and null geodesics extend to both conformal infinities with infinite affine length.

The vacuum Einstein field equations with positive cosmological constant admit a closed spherical slicing with scale factor $a(t)=\ell \cosh [(t-t_0)/\ell ]$. The time-symmetric slice is at $t=t_0$. The substitution $T=2\arctan (e^{\tau })-\pi /2$ gives $dT/d\tau =\mathrm{sech}\tau$ and $\cos T=\mathrm{sech}\tau$, so the metric is ${\ell }^2{\sec }^{2}T[-d{T}^2+d{\Omega }_3^2]$. The conformal metric is a finite-time slab of the Einstein static universe, with spacelike conformal infinities $T=\pm \pi /2$.

For a complete comoving observer at the north pole of the closed slicing of de Sitter spacetime, radial null rays have $d\chi =\pm dT$. The finite past conformal interval gives the displayed particle horizon; the finite remaining future interval gives the displayed observer event horizon. The angular distances range strictly between zero and $\pi$ at every finite proper time. Complete constant-$T$ three-spheres are Cauchy hypersurfaces, so their domains of dependence cover the global spacetime and they have no Cauchy horizons. Cosmological horizons are observer-dependent and are not failures of global hyperbolicity.

This region $0\le r<R$ of de Sitter spacetime is static for the central observer, with a cosmological Killing horizon at $r=R$. The central proper time fixes the normalization of ${\partial }_t$. Static observers have acceleration $r/(R^2\sqrt{1-r^2/R^2})$. Horizon-crossing null coordinates remove the coordinate singularity, while the global extension has compact spherical spatial slices and spacelike past/future conformal infinity.

In units $G=\hslash =c=k_B=1$, a smooth Wick rotation of the four-dimensional static patch of de Sitter spacetime has Euclidean time period $2\pi \sqrt{3/\Lambda }$. Its compact geometry is a round four-sphere of radius $\sqrt{3/\Lambda }$. The Einstein field equations give $R=4\Lambda$, and direct integration gives volume $24{\pi }^2/{\Lambda }^2$, hence gravitational Euclidean action $I_E=-3\pi /\Lambda$. With zero assigned internal energy, $I_E=\beta E-S$ gives Bekenstein-Hawking entropy $S=3\pi /\Lambda =A/4$.

In units $\hslash =c=k_B=1$, the central inertial observer has temperature $1/(2\pi R)$. The Tolman temperature law redshifts it to the displayed static-observer value. Its acceleration satisfies $4{\pi }^2{T}^2=a^2+R^{-2}$. Near the horizon the temperature approaches $a/(2\pi )$, as predicted by the Unruh effect; at the center temperature remains nonzero despite vanishing acceleration.

Four-dimensional de Sitter spacetime has ten independent isometries. In the expanding flat slicing they act on the spatial boundary as three translations, three rotations, one dilation, and three special conformal transformations.

A spatial translation in de Sitter flat slicing sends $\mathbf{x}\mapsto \mathbf{x}+\mathbf{a}$ at fixed conformal time. Translation invariance of a momentum-space correlator produces its momentum-conserving Dirac delta distribution.

A spatial rotation acts by $\mathbf{x}\mapsto R\mathbf{x}$ with $R$ orthogonal. A rotationally invariant scalar two-point function depends only on the magnitude of its momentum.

In flat conformal coordinates, a de Sitter dilation acts as $(\tau ,\mathbf{x})\mapsto (s\tau ,s\mathbf{x})$. It is an isometry because the common coordinate rescaling cancels the inverse-square scaling of the conformal factor.

The three special conformal transformations complete translations, rotations, and dilations to the ten-dimensional de Sitter isometry group in flat slicing. A propagation speed different from the metric light speed generally breaks these transformations.

The expanding flat slicing has metricIt covers one half of global de Sitter spacetime and has a past coordinate boundary at $t\to -\infty$.

For a timelike geodesic moving in the $x$ direction with $t(0)=x(0)=0$ and $\dot{x}(0)=v_0>0$, spatial translation symmetry gives $e^{2Ht}\dot{x}=v_0$. Proper-time normalization then gives

The geodesic with nonzero conserved spatial momentum reaches $t=-\infty$ after the finite past proper timeThis is incompleteness of the expanding coordinate patch, whose geodesics extend smoothly in global de Sitter spacetime; it is not a curvature singularity.