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Inverse Compton scattering transfers energy from an energetic electron to a photon.

The thermal Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect is inverse Compton scattering of cosmic microwave background photons by hot cluster electrons. For an optically thin, nonrelativistic thermal plasma,The Compton y parameter measures the electron pressure column. The distortion is a decrement below roughly 217 GHz, an increment above it, and has $\Delta T/T=-2y$ in the Rayleigh-Jeans law limit. Relativistic electron corrections modify the spectrum and null.^[ref]

Multifrequency maps separate this spectrum from primary Cosmic microwave background anisotropy, radio sources and dust; atmospheric subtraction, beams and calibration require control. The kinetic Sunyaev-Zeldovich effect has $\Delta T/T\simeq -\tau v_{\mathrm{los}}/c$ and a CMB-temperature-like spectrum, so it is both a contaminant and a peculiar-velocity probe. Planck demonstrated blind multifrequency cluster detection with external confirmation and a measured selection function.^[ref]

For a fixed physical pressure column, $y$ has no ordinary cosmological surface-brightness dimming: the distorted spectrum and CMB redshift together. The integrated Compton parameter $Y=\int yd\Omega$ still scales as $D_A^{-2}$ for fixed integrated physical pressure. SZ observations therefore find distant clusters and measure thermal pressure; integrated $Y$ is a useful mass proxy, requiring calibration and a selection model for cosmological counts. X-ray emission scales approximately as $\int n_e^2\Lambda (T_e)dl$, while SZ scales as $\int n_e{T}_{e}dl$. Combining them and a measured temperature constrains density, depth and, with angular geometry, distance. gas clumping factor, asphericity, temperature structure and nonthermal support limit that inference.

An active galactic nucleus is powered by accretion onto a central supermassive black hole. Binding-energy release gives $L\sim \eta \dot{M}{c}^2$, so a compact source can outshine its host without converting its entire mass into radiation. A disc produces a thermal continuum, a hot corona can Comptonize disc photons into X-rays, and surrounding gas produces broad and narrow emission lines. Dust can obscure and reradiate the central emission. Orientation explains part of the diversity between unobscured and obscured nuclei, but accretion state and intrinsic variability also matter.

relativistic jets channel energy and momentum into collimated magnetized outflows. Disc rotation and, in some models, black-hole rotation supply the energy; magnetic stresses accelerate the plasma and connect the engine to the outflow. synchrotron radiation traces relativistic electrons and magnetic fields, while inverse Compton scattering can produce higher-energy emission. Bright knots, terminal hotspots and large radio lobes show that the deposited energy is not confined to the unresolved nucleus.

For bulk speed $\beta c$ at viewing angle $i$, the Doppler factor is $\mathcal{D}=[\Gamma (1-\beta \cos i){]}^{-1}$, and an approaching feature hasLight-travel delay can therefore give apparent superluminal motion without any material or signal travelling locally faster than light. Beaming also makes approaching jets appear brighter and more rapidly variable; a one-sided image is not proof of a physically one-sided outflow. Spectral, polarization and resolved-motion measurements constrain the geometry and emission mechanisms. Jets can inflate cavities and heat surrounding gas, linking black-hole accretion to galaxy and cluster feedback.

Astrophysical jets are directed plasma outflows whose bulk energy and momentum remain concentrated near an axis over distances much larger than the launch region. They occur around accreting black holes and neutron stars and in forming stellar systems, with very different characteristic speeds and scales. An accretion reservoir supplies binding energy; a rotating black hole can additionally provide spin energy through electromagnetic stresses. An observed jet therefore does not uniquely identify either a black hole or a particular launch mechanism.

Magnetic fields couple the rotating engine to the outflow. Gas tied to suitable open field lines can be accelerated centrifugally from a disc; a large-scale poloidal field threading a rotating hole can support outward electromagnetic energy flux. Farther out, magnetic stresses, hoop stresses and external pressure can aid collimation. Pressure-driven acceleration, magnetic-to-kinetic conversion and entrainment depend on loading and environment. A simple stationary axisymmetric picture does not guarantee stability against kinks, mixing or disruption.

The emission commonly contains synchrotron radiation from relativistic electrons spiraling in magnetic fields. Its broad continuum and linear polarization constrain the particles and ordered field component; inverse Compton scattering can extend radiation to higher photon energies. Compact knots can be shocks or moving patterns rather than individual material parcels. Interaction with the surroundings creates shocks, hotspots, cocoons and radio lobes, transporting energy far beyond the central emission region.

Relativistic viewing effects are crucial. If a feature moves at speed $\beta c$ at angle $\theta$ toward the observer, its Doppler factor isA comoving emission frequency is observed at ${\nu }_{\mathrm{obs}}={\delta }_D{\nu }^{\prime }/(1+z_{\cos })$. For a discrete isotropically emitting moving feature with spectral index $F_{\nu }^{\prime }\propto {\nu }^{\prime -s}$, the flux enhancement scales as ${\delta }_D^{3+s}$ in the usual unresolved-blob approximation. Continuous-jet conventions give a different exponent, so apparent brightness is not a direct orientation-free jet-power measurement.

Light-travel delays also produce apparent superluminal motion. In a source time interval $\Delta t$, the transverse displacement is $\beta c\Delta t\sin \theta$, but the observer receives the two signals separated by $\Delta t(1-\beta \cos \theta )$. ThereforeThe maximum is $\Gamma \beta$, at $\cos \theta =\beta$. An apparent speed above $c$ violates no local speed limit. The receding jet is deboosted, so an intrinsically two-sided source may look one-sided; absorption and environmental differences can also contribute.

Jets feed back on their host systems by depositing mechanical energy, inflating cavities, accelerating particles and modifying surrounding gas. Radio luminosity measures only part of that budget; unseen ions, magnetic fields, radiative losses and work on the environment all matter. Connecting the compact engine to a large lobe therefore requires both relativistic emission physics and the dynamics of its surroundings.