State compression replaces a dynamic programming history by a smaller summary that retains everything needed to determine future legal choices, costs and transitions. Histories may be merged only when their summaries make all relevant continuations equivalent.

For selecting a subset of $n$ objects, an $n$-bit mask stores membership in one integer. A path problem may additionally need the final vertex: two partial paths visiting the same subset can have different continuation costs if their endpoints differ. Compression saves storage by discarding irrelevant history; omitting relevant state changes the problem rather than optimizing its solution.

For a finite discounted Markov decision process, value iteration repeatedly applies the Bellman operator:The operator is a contraction by factor $\gamma$ in the supremum norm, so the iterates converge to its unique fixed point, the optimal value. The proof bounds the change of each action value by $\gamma \Vert V-W{\Vert }_{\infty }$ and uses the same bound after maximization.

In a one-state system with one action giving reward one, $V_{n+1}=1+\gamma V_n$ and the limit is $1/(1-\gamma )$. Undiscounted problems require different assumptions; this contraction proof fails at $\gamma =1$.

An underground liquid-xenon dark-matter direct detection experiment at Gran Sasso. Its two-phase time projection chamber combined position reconstruction with light-to-charge discrimination. The 2011–2012 search used a $34\mathrm{kg}$ inner target for $224.6$ live days and found candidate counts compatible with background.^[ref]

Selecting an inner fiducial volume reduces externally produced radiation because outer xenon attenuates it before it reaches the selected target. This trades target mass for reduced background. It does not remove uniformly distributed internal radioactivity or every neutron recoil, so purification, veto information and calibration remain important.

A reagent adding a predefined three-nucleotide unit during oligonucleotide synthesis. Mixtures of whole codons allow controlled amino-acid representation while avoiding unwanted stop codons.^[ref]

Sequencing methods that read long contiguous nucleic-acid molecules or their derived templates. Long reads help connect distant variants or exons, but error models and molecular completeness must still be evaluated.

Whole-genome sequencing aims to sample sequence across an entire genome, rather than a selected panel or expressed subset. The label describes intended scope, not guaranteed complete observation of every base. Repeats, uneven representation and insufficient sequencing depth can leave regions unresolved. Analysis can involve mapping to a reference or genome assembly, and variants absent from the reference can require special attention. ^[ref]

A unique molecular identifier is a short sequence tag attached so that observations derived from the same original molecule can be grouped. It helps distinguish amplification duplicates from independently captured templates. If two originals receive the same tag, a collision can merge them; sequence errors can instead split one tag into several apparent groups. The tag space, assignment method and error correction therefore limit molecule-count accuracy. ^[ref]

The fraction of informative reads carrying a variant. Purity, copy number and allelic configuration affect its relationship to the fraction of biological cells carrying that variant.

An ATP-dependent protein complex that installs a sliding clamp at an appropriate DNA structure, enabling processive synthesis and associated functions.

Loading of an inactive replication-helicase precursor that makes an origin competent to fire later. In conventional eukaryotic cycles, low kinase activity permits licensing and subsequent high kinase activity promotes firing while preventing renewed licensing.

A protein complex that participates in recruitment of factors for replication origin licensing in eukaryotes.

A licensing factor cooperating with the origin recognition complex and Cdt1 to load the MCM2-7 replication-helicase precursor.

A licensing factor that helps load MCM2-7 onto origin DNA before helicase activation.

Licensing prepares origins before S-phase activation and must be restrained after replication begins. Separating preparation from firing helps prevent a genomic segment from being copied repeatedly in one cell cycle. ^[ref]

A heterohexameric complex forming the motor core of the eukaryotic replicative helicase. Inactive double hexamers are loaded during licensing before conversion into active CMG helicase complexes.

A bacterial replication initiator that acts at the E. coli origin, oriC, with regulation involving nucleotide state and cellular conditions.

The conventional E. coli replicative DNA helicase, translocating on the lagging-strand template.

Unwinding supplies single-stranded templates to the replication machinery. Coupling the helicase to priming and synthesis limits uncontrolled separation of strands; helicase loading and an actively progressing fork are therefore distinct states. ^[ref]

The active eukaryotic replicative helicase assembled from Cdc45, MCM2-7 and GINS, translocating on the leading-strand template.