"Water" is the name for both:

This is a general principle of software/hardware design that Ciro feels holds wide applicability.

The most extreme case of this is of course the integrated circuit itself, in which it is essentially impossible (?) to observe the specific value of some indidual wire at some point.

Somewhat on the other extreme, we have high level programming languages running on top of an operating system: at this point, you can just GDB step debug your program, print the value of any variable/memory location, and fully understand anything that you want. Provided that you manage to easily reach that point of interest.

And for anything in between we have various intermediate levels of complication. The most notable perhaps being developing the operating system itself. At this level, you can't so easily step debug (although techniques do exist). For early boot or bootloaders for example, you might want to use JTAG for example on real hardware.

In parallel to this, there is also another very important pair of closely linked tradeoffs:

Emulation also has another potential downside: unless you are very careful at implementing things correctly, your model might not be representative of the real thing. Also, there may be important tradeoffs between how much the model looks like the real thing, and how fast it runs. For example, QEMU's use of binary translation allows it to run orders of magnitude faster than gem5. However, you are unable to make any predictions about system performance with QEMU, since you are not modelling key elements like the cache or CPU pipeline.

Instrumentation is another technique that has can be considered to achieve greater observability.

The term loosely refers to certain layers of the computer abstraction layers hierarchy, usually high level hardware internals like CPU pipeline, caching and the memory system. Basically exactly what gem5 models.

Subtle is the Lord by Abraham Pais (1982) mentions that this has a good summary of the atomic theory evidence that was present at the time, and which had become basically indisputable at or soon after that date.

On Wikimedia Commons since it is now public domain in most countries: commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Perrin,_Jean_-_Les_Atomes,_F%C3%A9lix_Alcan,_1913.djvu

An English translation from 1916 by English chemist Dalziel Llewellyn Hammick on the Internet Archive, also on the public domain: archive.org/details/atoms00hammgoog

This is a good book, it gives a summary of biographies, and a reasonable description of the main ideas, with many illustrations. Each subject is not presented in incredible detail, but it is a good overview of events.

Free borrow on the Internet Archive: archive.org/details/inwardboundofmat0000pais/page/88/mode/2up

The book unfortunately does not cover the history of quantum mechanics very, the author specifically says that this will not be covered, the focus is more on particles/forces. But there are still some mentions.

4 K. Enough for to make "low temperature superconductors" like regular metals superconducting, e.g. the superconducting temperature of aluminum if 1.2 K.

Contrast with liquid nitrogen, which is much cheaper but only goes to 77K.

Basically a GUI music editor where you can specifically see and export classical music notation instead of tablature-style notation.

Best open source one found so far as of 2020: MuseScore.

Weight: heavy.

MIDI support is kind of secondary: www.youtube.com/watch?v=vnkJ0uYXMG8, e.g. how to export MIDI? discourse.ardour.org/t/export-an-entire-project-into-a-midi-file/88116

Ardour vmpk input: askubuntu.com/questions/709673/save-as-midi-when-playing-from-vmpk-qsynth/1298231#1298231