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Use separation of variables in Laplace's equation: writing $\varphi =R(r)\Theta (\theta )$ givesSingle-valuedness requires $2\pi$-periodicity, so the nonconstant angular Fourier modes have integer $n\ge 1$ and are $\cos n\theta ,\sin n\theta$. Their radial solutions are $r^n,r^{-n}$. The zero angular mode has radial solutions $1,\log r$. These give the harmonic Fourier expansions in planar concentric domains used below.

For the annulus with $0<a<b$, constant boundary data suggest a radial harmonic function $A+B\log r$. Enforcing both boundary values givesThis has the required boundary values and satisfies $(r{\varphi }_r{)}_r=0$. It is unique: the difference of two continuous solutions is harmonic in the annulus and zero on both boundary circles, so the maximum principle for harmonic functions, applied to the difference and its negative, makes it zero.

A norm on a real vector space $V$ is a map $p:V\to [0,\infty )$ satisfying $p(x)=0$ exactly when $x=0$, $p(tx)=|t|p(x)$ for real $t$, and $p(x+y)\le p(x)+p(y)$. Its induced metric is $d_p(x,y)=p(x-y)$. The three axioms respectively give definiteness, compatibility with scaling, and the triangle inequality.

In the upper half-plane model, hyperbolic lines are vertical Euclidean rays and semicircles centred on the real axis, equivalently circle arcs meeting the real boundary orthogonally. A semicircle with endpoints $r<s$ is mapped to the imaginary axis byIts determinant is one, and its real endpoints map to $0,\infty$. A vertical line $x=a$ is mapped to the imaginary axis by $z\mapsto z-a$. Thus every hyperbolic line can be carried to a fixed one; composing one such map with the inverse of another proves transitivity of $\mathrm{PSL}(2,\mathbb{R})$ on the lines.

Reflection in $x=a$ is $R_a(z)=2a-\overline{z}$. Reflection in the unit semicircle is $R_{\circ }(z)=1/\overline{z}$. The latter fixes the semicircle pointwise, is an involution, and preserves the hyperbolic metric because $|dw|=|dz|/|z{|}^2$ and $\mathrm{Im}w=\mathrm{Im}z/|z{|}^2$. The vertical reflection similarly preserves $|dz|/\mathrm{Im}z$. Their composition in the specified order is

The Liouville theorem states that every bounded entire function is constant. Let $|f(z)|\le M$ and choose distinct $a,b$. For $R>\max (|a|,|b|)$, partial fractions and the Cauchy integral formula givewith the circle traversed anticlockwise. On that circle,The displayed difference is independent of $R$, so $f(a)=f(b)$. Since $a,b$ were arbitrary, $f$ is constant. This proves the theorem with the requested two-pole contour rather than assuming it.

A function $f:I\to \mathbb{R}$ is uniformly continuous ifThe crucial point is that $\delta$ works throughout the interval, not just near one chosen point.

Yes, it is bounded on the closed unit interval. Choose $\delta$ for $\epsilon =1$, and choose finitely many grid points $t_j$ such that every $x\in [0,1]$ is within $\delta$ of some $t_j$. Then $|f(x)|\le 1+{\max }_j|f(t_j)|$, a finite bound. Equivalently, uniform continuity implies continuity, and a continuous real function on a compact set is bounded.

Yes, a bounded derivative gives uniform continuity on the half-line. If $|f^{\prime }|\le K$, the mean value theorem gives $|f(x)-f(y)|\le K|x-y|$. This is a Lipschitz condition, so for $K>0$ use $\delta =\epsilon /K$. If $K=0$, the function is constant. As usual for a derivative on this closed half-line, continuity at its endpoint is included.

For a bounded function on a nondegenerate compact interval $[a,b]$, a partition $P$ has Darboux sumsThe Riemann integrability criterion isEquivalently the supremum of lower sums and infimum of upper sums agree; their common value is the Riemann integral. A bounded nonintegrable example is the Dirichlet function $\boxed{f=1_{\mathbb{Q}}}$. Every positive-length interval contains rational and irrational points, so every lower sum is zero and every upper sum is $b-a>0$.

To prove the intermediate value theorem in this setting, let $A=\{t\in [a,b]:f(t)<v\}$ and $c=\sup A$. The endpoint inequalities and continuity give an interval immediately to the right of $a$ contained in $A$ and an interval immediately to the left of $b$ disjoint from $A$. Thus $a<c<b$. Choose points of $A$ tending to $c$; continuity gives $f(c)\le v$. If $f(c)<v$, continuity would place some point larger than $c$ in $A$, contradicting the supremum. Hence $\boxed{f(c)=v}$ at an interior point.

For a continuous self-map of $[a,b]$, define $g(t)=f(t)-t$. The range condition implies $g(a)\ge 0$ and $g(b)\le 0$. If either is zero, its endpoint is a fixed point. Otherwise apply the just-proved intermediate value theorem to $-g$ with target zero to obtain $d\in (a,b)$ and $g(d)=0$. ThereforeThis proves the fixed-point property of a closed interval without requiring $f$ itself to be monotone.

Take a right-handed local Cartesian frame with $x$ towards the equator, $y$ azimuthal and $z$ radially outwards in the northern hemisphere. A local radial shear $U_y=Sz$ and a poloidal magnetic field represented by $A\hat{\mathbf{y}}$ give the alpha-Omega dynamo equations $A_t=\alpha B+{\eta }_T{A}_{xx}$ and $B_t=S{A}_x+{\eta }_T{B}_{xx}$. Substitution of a Fourier mode proportional to $e^{pt+ikx}$ gives the displayed dispersion relation. The growing branch has $\mathrm{Re}p=-{\eta }_T{k}^2+\sqrt{|\alpha Sk|/2}$ and $\mathrm{Im}p=\mathrm{sgn}(\alpha Sk)\sqrt{|\alpha Sk|/2}$. Its phase velocity is $-\mathrm{Im}p/k$: it propagates equatorwards when $\alpha S<0$, polewards when $\alpha S>0$. The result assumes local constant coefficients and no meridional circulation in a star; advection and spatially separated field regeneration can alter migration.

For the positively oriented boundary of a spherical triangle on the unit sphere, parallel transport is rotation by its angle excess modulo $2\pi$. The tangent is parallel along each geodesic side and turns by $\pi -\alpha$ at a corner of angle $\alpha$. The three corner turns sum to $3\pi -\alpha -\beta -\gamma$, and combining them with parallel transport returns the initial tangent. Hence the transport angle is the negative of that sum modulo $2\pi$, giving the formula. The spherical excess formula identifies the angle with enclosed area; reversing traversal changes its sign.

A vector field along a smooth curve is parallel if its covariant derivative along that curve is zero. Its value is the parallel transport of its initial value. A Levi-Civita connection preserves inner products under this transport, so the length of a parallel field is constant. Along a unit-speed curvature-one geodesic, the normal Jacobi field with zero initial value and initial derivative $a$ is $\sin t$ times the parallel transport of $a$.

In flat three-dimensional spacetime with polar spatial orthonormal coframe $(dT,d\rho ,\rho d\varphi )$, the spin connection has ${\omega }_{12}=-d\varphi$. Thus every parallel spinor has the displayed components. Since $({\gamma }^1{\gamma }^2{)}^2=-1$, these components change sign under $\varphi \mapsto \varphi +2\pi$. This is the lift of a full rotation to the spin structure extending over the disk; the polar frame itself does not extend over the origin. In a Cartesian frame the same parallel spinors have constant components.

Consider an approximate conditional likelihood in which a paired total $t_i$ leads to a structural zero with probability $\theta$, and otherwise a binomial distribution with success probability $p$. For an observed zero, the posterior cure weight is $q_i=\theta /[\theta +(1-\theta )(1-p{)}^{t_i}]$; for a positive count it is zero. Differentiating the log-likelihood gives the displayed equations at an interior maximum-likelihood estimator, with the weights evaluated at that estimator. Recomputing the weights and then updating the parameters is an expectation-maximization algorithm. Boundary fits must also be considered. These equations describe a conditional mixture: if cure is instead specified before two Poisson distributions are conditioned on their total, its conditional probability generally depends on the total and on the baseline nuisance rate. A zero observed in a short interval is not by itself proof of permanent biological cure.

Fix an ancillary statistic $a$ and a parameter value at which the score function is evaluated. Express that score as a function $u(v,a)$ of the varying maximum-likelihood estimator coordinate $v$. The ordinary density change-of-variables formula applied to the P-star approximation gives the displayed density; several monotone branches require a sum. Its derivative is a sample-coordinate derivative, not generally the parameter observed information.

For a size-$n$ sample from an exponential distribution of mean $\theta$, the likelihood in the maximum-likelihood estimator coordinate $v=\bar{Y}$ has difference $\ell (\theta ;v)-\ell (v;v)=n\log (v/\theta )-nv/\theta +n$, and the fitted observed information is $n/v^2$. Their P-star approximation is the displayed gamma density shape. Its normalization gives exactly the sampling density $n^n{v}^{n-1}{e}^{-nv/\theta }/(\Gamma (n){\theta }^n)$. This illustrates an exact transformation-model case rather than a general claim of exactness.

For independent samples of size $n$ from exponential distributions with rates $\lambda$ and $\psi \lambda$, the maximum-likelihood estimators are $\hat{\lambda }=n/S$ and $\hat{\psi }=S/T$, where $S$ and $T$ are the respective sample sums. Their normalized P-star approximation is exact:Indeed, $S$ and $T$ have independent gamma distributions with shapes $n$ and respective rates $\lambda ,\psi \lambda$. The Jacobian determinant of their inverse transformation is $n^2/({\hat{\psi }}^2{\hat{\lambda }}^3)$, giving the displayed density. Alternatively the square root of the determinant of the fitted observed information is $n/(\hat{\psi }\hat{\lambda })$; multiplying by the exponential of the fitted log-likelihood difference gives the same shape. Its normalizing constant in the P-star approximation is $c_n=n^{2n-1}{e}^{-2n}/\Gamma (n{)}^2$. Integrating over $\hat{\lambda }$ givesso $\hat{\psi }/\psi$ has the F-distribution with degrees of freedom $(2n,2n)$.

The total space of the orientation line bundle is orientable even when its base is not: an orientation reversal in a base coordinate transition is matched by a reversal in the line coordinate, so their product has positive sign. Fiberwise multiplication by $1-t$ gives a deformation retraction onto the zero section. For the real projective plane this total space is $(S^2\times \mathbb{R})/((v,t)\sim (-v,-t))$, an oriented noncompact three-manifold homotopy equivalent to the plane.

A faithful transitive order-primitive lattice permutation group is either a regular Archimedean translation action, an order two-transitive action, or a periodic action. In the periodic case a fixed-point-free order automorphism of the Dedekind completion commutes with the action and has cofinal and coinitial iterates; the point stabilizers act order two-transitively within period intervals. Only the regular case satisfies $|f||g|\le |g{|}^2|f{|}^2$ for every pair. In either other case, order two-transitivity on the whole chain or on a period interval supplies positive $a,b$ and $x<y<z<t$ with $xa=y$, $ya=z$, $xb=x$, $yb=t$, giving $xab=t>z=x{b}^2{a}^2$. The classification itself is a theorem, not a consequence of that witness calculation.