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A subgroup $H$ of a group $G$ is a normal subgroup when $gH{g}^{-1}=H$ for every $g\in G$, equivalently $gH=Hg$. The quotient group $G/H$ has the left cosets as elements, with $(gH)(kH)=gkH$, identity $H$ and inverse $(gH{)}^{-1}=g^{-1}H$. Normality makes this multiplication independent of representatives.

The first isomorphism theorem for groups says that for a group homomorphism $\phi :G\to K$, its kernel of a group homomorphism is normal andThe image is taken with the induced group operation; surjectivity onto all of $K$ is not required.

For the given upper triangular matrices, take diagonal entries:The target is a direct product of groups, with multiplication of nonzero real numbers in each coordinate. Indeed the product of two such matrices has diagonal $(a{a}^{\prime },d{d}^{\prime })$, proving the group homomorphism property. Any pair of nonzero diagonal entries is attained by a diagonal matrix, so $\phi$ is surjective. Its kernel of a group homomorphism consists precisely of the matrices with $a=d=1$, namely $H$. Hencewith coordinatewise multiplication, not addition on ${\mathbb{R}}^2$.

With rightmost-first composition, a permutation cycle satisfiesTracing each $a_j$ verifies the equality, and every other letter is fixed. Thus every cycle is a product of transpositions; decomposing a permutation into disjoint permutation cycles proves that every element of $S_n$ is such a product. The identity is the empty product.

To establish that parity is well defined, use the permutation matrix $P_{\sigma }$ defined by $P_{\sigma }{e}_i=e_{\sigma (i)}$. Its determinant is $\pm 1$, and $P_{\sigma \tau }=P_{\sigma }{P}_{\tau }$. A transposition swaps two columns of the identity matrix and has determinant $-1$. Therefore if $\sigma$ is expressed as a product of $r$ transpositions,The left side depends only on $\sigma$, so any two decompositions have the same parity. DefineMultiplicativity of the determinant makes this the sign homomorphism. Its kernel of a group homomorphism is the alternating groupIt is a normal subgroup consisting of the even permutations. For $n\ge 2$ the sign map is surjective because a transposition has sign $-1$, so $[S_n:A_n]=2$. For $n=1$ both groups are trivial.

A finite nonabelian simple group cannot be a p-group: a nontrivial finite p-group has nontrivial centre of a group, since its class equation makes every noncentral conjugacy class size divisible by $p$, and hence makes the centre size a positive multiple of $p$. That centre is a normal subgroup, so must be the whole group if $G$ is a simple group, making it abelian; an abelian simple group has prime order. Therefore every Sylow subgroup here is nontrivial and proper. It cannot be normal, so $n_p>1$.

To obtain a simple group embedding from Sylow conjugation, the conjugation action on Sylow subgroups gives a group homomorphism $\rho :G\to S_{n_p}$. This group action is transitive by the Sylow theorems and is nontrivial since $n_p>1$. Its kernel of a group homomorphism is a normal subgroup, so the defining property of a simple group makes the kernel of a group homomorphism trivial: $\rho$ is an embedding. Now compose with the sign of a permutation $S_{n_p}\to \{\pm 1\}$. A nontrivial composite would again be injective because $G$ is a simple group, embedding $G$ in a group of order two, impossible for a nonabelian group. Thus $\rho (G)$ lies in the alternating group $A_{n_p}$. By Lagrange's theorem,The argument only invokes the factorial formula once $n_p\ge 2$; the impossible case $n_p=2$ itself is also excluded by the embedding.

The quartic is irreducible by Eisenstein criterion at two, so its Galois group is transitive on its four roots. Its discriminant is $1616=16\cdot 101$, so five and seven are unramified primes for the polynomial. The squarefree factorizations areThe cubic modulo five has no root in ${\mathbb{F}}_5$, hence is irreducible. The quadratic modulo seven has discriminant five, a nonsquare there. The Frobenius cycle type theorem therefore supplies a three-cycle and a transposition in the group.

Transitivity implies that its order is divisible by four, and the three-cycle implies divisibility by three. Its order divides $24$, so it is $12$ or $24$. The only subgroup of index two in $S_4$ is $A_4$: an index-two subgroup is the kernel of a group homomorphism of a nontrivial homomorphism to $C_2$, and all transpositions are conjugate and generate $S_4$, forcing this homomorphism to be the sign. The exhibited transposition excludes $A_4$. Hence

On the normal subgroup $N=⟨a,b⟩$, the first diagonal entry is the linear character $\chi (a^i{b}^j)={\epsilon }^i{\eta }^j$. Its image has order at most three, although $|N|=9$, so its kernel of a group homomorphism has order at least three. The second entry is the inverse character and has the same kernel of a group homomorphism. ThusElements of the other coset have off-diagonal image and cannot be the identity. If $(\epsilon ,\eta )\ne (1,1)$, the kernel of a group homomorphism has order exactly three; otherwise it is all of $N$.

When both roots equal one, only $C$ acts nontrivially and its eigenlines spanned by $(1,1)$ and $(1,-1)$ are invariant, so the representation is reducible. Otherwise one of $A,B$ has two distinct eigenvalues. Any invariant line would be one of its coordinate eigenlines, but $C$ interchanges these two lines. Hence no invariant line exists, and

The identity is one conjugacy class. In $N\setminus \{1\}$, conjugation by $c$ pairs each element with its inverse, giving four classes represented by $a,b,ab,a{b}^2$, each of size two. All nine elements of $Nc$ are conjugate, since conjugation by $n\in N$ changes the reflection component by $n^2$ and squaring is a bijection of $N$.

There are two linear characters: the trivial character and the character equal to one on $N$ and minus one on $Nc$. Write $\omega =e^{2\pi i/3}$. The remaining four irreducible characters of a representation are induced from the nontrivial characters $a^i{b}^j\mapsto {\omega }^{ri+sj}$ of $N$, pairing $(r,s)$ with $(-r,-s)$. They are exactly the two-dimensional representations already proved irreducible. Taking representatives $(1,0),(0,1),(1,1),(1,2)$ yields the character tableIndeed the induced value on $a^i{b}^j$ is ${\omega }^{ri+sj}+{\omega }^{-(ri+sj)}$, equal to two or minus one, and is zero off $N$. The squared dimensions sum to $1+1+4\cdot 4=18$, so this is the complete table.

An element of $N$ centralizes $c$ only if it equals its inverse, hence only if it is the identity. No reflection centralizes $a$. Thus $Z(E)=\{1\}$ is cyclic, but the two linear representations kill $N$ and each two-dimensional irreducible has a nontrivial kernel of a group homomorphism of order three. Therefore a cyclic centre does not imply a faithful irreducible representation.

Multiplicativity of the determinant gives $\delta (gh)=\delta (g)\delta (h)$ and $\delta (1)=1$, so $\delta$ is a linear character. Its finite image is a cyclic group of roots of unity. If it contains $-1$, its order is $2m$ and the character of a representation ${\delta }^m$ maps onto $\{\pm 1\}$. The kernel of a group homomorphism is the preimage of its identity, so $\ker ({\delta }^m)$ is a normal subgroup of index $2$. The subgroup $\ker \delta$ itself need not have index $2$.

By Cauchy theorem for groups, a group $E$ of order $2k$ has an involution $g$. In the regular representation, left multiplication by $g$ is a permutation consisting of $k$ disjoint transpositions, so its determinant is $(-1{)}^k=-1$ when $k$ is odd. The preceding argument gives a normal subgroup of index two.

For a nonabelian simple group of order below $80$, Burnside's theorem requires at least three distinct prime factors. An odd order with three factors is at least $3\cdot 5\cdot 7=105$. An even order with exactly one factor of $2$ has a normal subgroup of index $2$. Thus its order must be divisible by $4$ and by at least two odd primes. Below $80$ the only possibility is $4\cdot 3\cdot 5=60$, since the next is $4\cdot 3\cdot 7=84$. Hence $\boxed{|H|=60}$.

Suppose first that $\varphi :G\to H$ is a $(\lambda ,\epsilon )$-quasi-isometry. If $k\in \ker \varphi$, the lower quasi-isometry inequality givesso the kernel of a group homomorphism lies in the finite word-metric ball of radius $\lambda \epsilon$ and is finite. Coarse surjectivity gives an $R$ such that every $h\in H$ is within $R$ of $\varphi (G)$. The finite ball $B_H(1,R)$ therefore contains representatives for every coset of $\varphi (G)$, so $H/\varphi (G)$ is finite.

Conversely, suppose $\ker \varphi$ is finite and $phi(G)$ is a finite-index subgroup of $H$. The map factors asThe first arrow is a finite-kernel quotient quasi-isometry, the middle arrow is an isomorphism of finitely generated groups, and the last arrow is a finite-index subgroup quasi-isometry. Their composition is a quasi-isometry. Hence the quasi-isometry criterion for a group homomorphism is

A subgroup $N\le G$ is normal whenIts left and right cosets then agree, and multiplicationis well defined on the cosets. The identity is $N$, the inverse of $gN$ is $g^{-1}N$, and associativity descends from $G$, so these cosets form the quotient group $G/N$.

For a group homomorphism $\theta :G\to H$, its kernel and image areThe kernel is normal becausewhenever $k\in \ker \theta$. Conversely, if $K⊴G$, the quotient mapis a homomorphism with kernel $K$. The image of any homomorphism is closed under products and inverses, so it is a subgroup of $H$. Finally, the mapis well defined and bijective and preserves multiplication. This is the first isomorphism theorem.

DefineEuler's formula shows that $\Phi$ is a homomorphism, its image is the complex unit circle, and its kernel is $\mathbb{Z}$. The first isomorphism theorem therefore givesThe image of $\mathbb{Q}/\mathbb{Z}$ consists exactly of the roots of unity: if $t=p/q$, then $\Phi (t{)}^q=1$, while every element of finite order on the unit circle has an argument that is a rational multiple of $2\pi$.

A Sylow subgroup of a finite group $G$ is a subgroup whose order is the largest power of a prime $p$ dividing $|G|$. The Sylow theorems say that such subgroups exist, that every $p$-subgroup lies in one, that all Sylow $p$-subgroups are conjugate, and that their number $n_p$ divides $|G|/p^a$ and obeys $n_p\equiv 1(\mathrm{mod}p)$.

For the last congruence, let one Sylow $p$-subgroup $P$ act by conjugation on the set of all Sylow $p$-subgroups. Every orbit other than a fixed point has size divisible by $p$. If $Q$ is fixed, then $P,Q\le N_G(Q)$. They are Sylow subgroups of this normalizer, so they are conjugate within $N_G(Q)$; because every element of $N_G(Q)$ fixes $Q$ under conjugation, this forces $P=Q$. Thus there is exactly one fixed point and $n_p\equiv 1(\mathrm{mod}p)$.

Now let $H<A_n$ have index $m$ with $1<m<n$. The coset action gives a homomorphismIts kernel is a normal subgroup of the simple group $A_n$. It cannot be all of $A_n$, since the action is transitive and nontrivial, so it is trivial. This would embed $A_n$ into $S_m$, contrary to $|A_n|=n!/2>m!=|S_m|$. Hence no such subgroup exists.

Suppose finally that a group $G$ of order $90$ were simple. The Sylow count satisfiesand simplicity excludes $n_5=1$, so $n_5=6$. Conjugation on these six subgroups gives a nontrivial homomorphism $G\to S_6$, which simplicity makes injective. Its image lies in $A_6$, because the composite with the sign homomorphism $S_6\to \{\pm 1\}$ must be trivial. It would therefore be a subgroup of $A_6$ of index $360/90=4$, contradicting the result just proved. Thus

The orientation-preserving symmetries of a cube are the $3\times 3$ signed permutation matrices with determinant one. There are $3!2^2=24$ of them. Their group action on the four body diagonals identifies this group with the symmetric group $S_4$. Indeed choose diagonal directions $(1,1,1),(1,-1,-1),(-1,1,-1),(-1,-1,1)$, whose sum is zero and whose only linear relation has all coefficients equal. A rotation fixing every diagonal sends each direction to itself or its negative; the relation forces all four signs equal. All negative would give $-I$, which has determinant $-1$, so the kernel of a group homomorphism is trivial. Both groups have order 24, giving the identification. Its face permutations have cycle types $1^6$, $1^{2}4$, $1^2{2}^2$, $2^3$ and $3^2$, occurring $1,6,3,6,8$ times respectively.

A finite nonabelian simple group embeds in $A_{n_p}$, where $n_p$ is its number of Sylow subgroups for a prime dividing its order. It is not a p-group by the nontrivial-centre property. Thus its Sylow subgroups are proper and cannot be normal, so $n_p>1$. The conjugation action is nontrivial, and its normal kernel of a group homomorphism must therefore be trivial. The sign of this faithful permutation action must be trivial, since a nontrivial sign homomorphism would inject the group into a group of order two. Lagrange's theorem consequently gives $|G|\mid n_p!/2$.