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A regulatory subunit associated with a class I phosphoinositide 3-kinase complex. A band of its approximate mass does not establish its identity or whether a detected phosphorylation is activating.

At tree level with universal weak charged current coupling and massless neutrinos, the leptonic pseudoscalar decay width gives the displayed ratio. The pion decay constant, Fermi constant and common quark mixing coefficient cancel. The charged-lepton mass factor is helicity suppression: a spin-zero parent cannot emit the two massless helicities selected by the chiral weak interaction. The ratio tests this suppression and lepton universality; scalar or pseudoscalar four-fermion interactions can modify it. Radiative corrections must be included for a precision comparison.

A planar lamina is an ideal mass distribution confined to a plane, with surface mass density $\sigma$ and infinitesimal mass $dm=\sigma dA$. Its moment of inertia about an axis is the integral of squared perpendicular distance against this mass element. Three mutually perpendicular axes through one point, with two in the lamina's plane, obey the perpendicular axis theorem even when the density is nonuniform.

The comoving curvature perturbation is dimensionless. With spatial coordinates and time carrying inverse mass dimensions, the cubic interaction $\int dt{d}^{3}x{a}^3{ϵ}^2\zeta {\dot{\zeta }}^2$ needs a mass-squared coefficient. Its standard gravitational normalization is $M_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2$. Six De Sitter curvature mode functions supply $M_{\mathrm{Pl}}^{-6}$; this vertex then supplies $M_{\mathrm{Pl}}^2$, leaving the physical $M_{\mathrm{Pl}}^{-4}$ curvature primordial bispectrum. The Wick-pairing multiplicity for a zeta zeta-prime-squared vertex is independently six: three choices of undifferentiated external leg times two differentiated-leg assignments.

Planck units use fundamental constants to set natural units of mass, length and time. The displayed convention sets the ordinary Planck mass to one. The related reduced Planck units convention instead normalizes the reduced Planck mass.

A growing solid protoplanet dynamically important compared with the surrounding smaller planetesimals. The term identifies a formation stage, rather than a single sharply specified mass.

Planetary science studies planets, moons, small bodies, planetary systems, and the processes that form and evolve them.

The scale $M_{\mathrm{th}}=h^3{M}_{\star }$ makes the Bondi radius comparable with the disk scale height. It organizes when planet-induced disturbances become nonlinear; it is not identical to an exact universal gap-opening mass.

The review led by Clément Baruteau discusses Lindblad and corotation torques, horseshoe drag, saturation and gap formation. Section2.1 covers low-mass planets; section2.2 discusses gap opening and more massive planets.

In units where a circular planet has orbital radius and speed one, the particle's relative speed $u$ outside a close encounter satisfies $u^2=3-T$, to leading order in the planet-to-star mass ratio. This follows from the vis-viva equation and $u^2=v^2+1-2h_z$ at the encounter radius. A short conservative encounter changes the direction of this relative velocity while preserving its magnitude.

For a closed string in a string sigma model in an isotropic plane wave, insert $e^{-i{\omega }_n\tau +2\pi in\sigma /L}$ into the transverse wave equation. Periodicity requires integer $n$, giving the displayed dispersion relation. The zero spatial mode is an oscillator of frequency $|m\kappa |$; when this mass vanishes it becomes a free particle mode and needs the position-plus-linear-time expansion.

For carrier number density $n$, charge $q$ and effective mass $m$, the plasma frequency is ${\omega }_p^2=n{q}^2/({ϵ}_{0}m)$. Combining the second London equation with the magnetostatic Ampère law and Gauss's law for magnetism gives ${\nabla }^2\mathbf{B}=({\omega }_p^2/c^2)\mathbf{B}$. Therefore the decaying planar solution has length ${\lambda }_L=c/{\omega }_p=\sqrt{m/({\mu }_{0}n{q}^2)}$.

A pendulum of length $L$ in vertical gravity $g$ is weakly attracted horizontally by an added long circular cylinder of line density $\lambda$. Outside it, $g_h=2G\lambda /r$ at axis distance $r$. Small-angle equilibrium gives horizontal deflection $d\simeq L{g}_h/g=2GL\lambda /(rg)$. Removing the cylinder's mass reverses the change. It is a before/after differential estimate; finite length, a nonhorizontal radial direction and mechanical motion require corrections.

A point-mass gravitational lens is the ideal gravitational lens obtained by concentrating a positive mass $M$ at one location. Use geometrical optics, the weak-field approximation, small angles in radians, and a stationary lens whose deflecting region is short compared with the observer-lens and lens-source distances. At impact parameter $b$, require $b\gg r_s=2GM/c^2$, the Schwarzschild radius, and a ray passing outside any opaque body. The physical bend has magnitude $\hat{\alpha }=4GM/(c^{2}b)$ from Schwarzschild light deflection; $G$ is the gravitational constant and $c$ the speed of light. Multiple images can occur within this weak-field approximation: strong gravitational lensing does not require a ray to approach a black hole closely.^[ref]

Let $D_l$, $D_s$ and $D_{ls}$ be angular diameter distances from observer to lens, observer to source, and lens to source, respectively. They refer to the background geometry used in the thin gravitational lens equation. In nearby Euclidean geometry, $D_{ls}=D_s-D_l$; in cosmology, do not make that subtraction. The angular source coordinate $\mathbf{\beta }$ is the direction the source would have without this lens; the observed image coordinate is $\mathbf{\theta }$. Both are measured relative to the observer-lens optical axis.^[ref]

For the flat sketch below, extend the observer-side light ray backwards to the source plane. Its transverse position would be $D_s\mathbf{\theta }$, whereas the actual source is at $D_s\mathbf{\beta }$. Their separation is $D_{ls}\hat{\mathbf{\alpha }}$. Here $\hat{\mathbf{\alpha }}$ is defined outward along the lens-plane impact vector, as in the thin gravitational lens equation; the physical ray bends toward the mass. Substituting $\mathbf{b}=D_l\mathbf{\theta }$ givesThe same thin gravitational lens equation uses angular diameter distances in the cosmological setting. The factor $D_{ls}/D_s$ converts the physical bend into the reduced angular deflection; these are different angles.

Deflection changes one light ray's direction; focusing concerns relative directions of neighboring light rays and their bundle's cross section. To see the difference for a point-mass gravitational lens, send parallel incident light rays past the lens. A ray at impact parameter $b$ meets the optical axis approximately $f(b)=b/\hat{\alpha }=c^2{b}^2/(4GM)$ beyond the lens. Doubling $b$ quadruples this crossing distance. Thus the lens does not have a common focal length for all rays, although it can produce lensing magnification and an Einstein ring for a specified source-observer geometry.

The point-mass gravitational lens also illustrates why focusing must not be identified just with positive lensing convergence. Away from the central mass, differentiate the reduced deflection $\mathbf{\alpha }={\theta }_E^2\mathbf{\theta }/r^2$: its two-dimensional divergence is zero, so $\kappa =0$ there. Nevertheless its radial and tangential derivatives differ, giving lensing shear of magnitude ${\theta }_E^2/r^2$ and $\det A=1-{\theta }_E^4/r^4$. A vacuum ray bundle can be distorted and magnified. In the same ideal transparent geometrical optics model, surface brightness is preserved; the larger apparent solid angle supplies the increased received light.

The polar second moment of a planar area about a perpendicular axis is the integral of squared distance from that axis over area. It has units ${\mathrm{m}}^4$ and equals the sum of second moments about two perpendicular in-plane axes through the same origin. For a disk of radius $a$, $J_p={\int }_0^{a}2\pi r^{3}dr=\pi a^4/2$. It is geometric, not a mass moment of inertia; a uniform cylinder has axial mass moment $\rho L{J}_p$.