Dugald Stewart (1753–1828) was a Scottish philosopher and a significant figure in the Scottish Enlightenment. He is best known for his work in the fields of philosophy, particularly in moral philosophy and epistemology, and for his contributions to the development of modern philosophical thought in Scotland. Stewart was educated at the University of Edinburgh and later became a professor there, where he taught philosophy.

"Essay on the Origin of Languages" is a notable work by the French philosopher and philologist Jean-Jacques Rousseau, published in 1781. In this essay, Rousseau explores the development of human language and its relationship to society and culture. Here are some key themes and ideas presented in the essay: 1. **Natural vs.

Ignacy Krasicki (1735–1801) was a prominent Polish poet, priest, and writer, regarded as one of the most significant figures in Polish literature of the Enlightenment period. He is often referred to as the "Prince of Poets" in Poland. Krasicki was known for his fables, satires, and other prose and verse works that often conveyed moral and philosophical themes.

James Burnett, Lord Monboddo (1714–1799) was a Scottish judge, philosopher, and a prominent figure of the Scottish Enlightenment. He is best known for his work in the fields of anthropology and the philosophy of language. Monboddo is particularly recognized for his theories regarding the origin of language and his ideas about humanity's development over time. Lord Monboddo argued that language was a uniquely human trait that developed from primitive forms of communication.

Johann Gottfried Herder (1744–1803) was a German philosopher, theologian, poet, and literary critic, who played a significant role in the development of Romanticism and is often regarded as a precursor to modern ideas about culture and nationalism. He is known for his contributions to the philosophy of language, his theories on aesthetics, and his ideas about the nature of human societies and cultures. Herder's work emphasized the importance of language and culture in shaping human thought and identity.

Joseph Omer Joly de Fleury (1797–1865) was a French politician and member of the French government during the July Monarchy (1830–1848). He is notable for serving as a member of the Chamber of Deputies in France and was involved in various political activities during his career.

Leandro Fernández de Moratín (1760–1828) was a prominent Spanish playwright and poet, known for his contributions to Spanish literature during the late 18th and early 19th centuries. He was part of the Spanish Enlightenment and is often associated with the neoclassical movement in literature. Moratín is best known for his plays, particularly "El sí de las niñas" (The Consent of the Girls), which critiques traditional societal norms regarding marriage and women's roles.

The Enlightenment was an intellectual and cultural movement that emerged in Europe during the late 17th to the 18th century. It emphasized reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority. Many intellectuals contributed to this period, and here is a list of some of the most prominent figures: 1. **Voltaire (François-Marie Arouet)** - A French writer and philosopher known for his advocacy of civil liberties, separation of church and state, and criticism of established religion.

"Nakaz" can refer to different concepts depending on the context. In historical terms, it is often associated with the "Nakaz" of Empress Catherine the Great of Russia, which was a document that outlined her reforms and vision for governance in Russia. It is a significant piece of political literature from the 18th century, emphasizing ideas such as the rule of law, justice, and the humane treatment of subjects.

Pierre Bayle (1647–1706) was a French philosopher and writer known for his contributions to skepticism, religious tolerance, and the development of modern critical thought. He is best known for his work "Dictionnaire Historique et Critique" (Historical and Critical Dictionary), published in 1697, which served as an encyclopedia of knowledge and a critique of religious dogmas and philosophical ideas of his time.

The Age of Enlightenment, which spanned the late 17th to the early 19th century, was a period characterized by significant developments in philosophy, politics, and science. This era is often associated with an emphasis on reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional doctrines. In terms of science, the Enlightenment marked a transformative time in which empirical observation and rational thought were increasingly valued over superstition and religious dogma.

Wilhelm von Humboldt (1767–1835) was a German philosopher, linguist, government functionary, and founder of the Humboldt University of Berlin. He is known for his significant contributions to the fields of linguistics, philosophy of education, and political theory. In linguistics, Humboldt is recognized for his ideas on the nature of language and its relationship to thought and culture.

Étienne-Gabriel Morelly (also spelled Morelly) was an 18th-century French philosopher and writer, known primarily for his work in social and political philosophy. He is often associated with early socialist thought and is best known for his book "Code de la nature" (Code of Nature), published in 1755.

Delusional disorders, also known as persistent delusional disorder or paraphrenia, are a type of serious mental illness characterized by the presence of one or more delusions that persist for at least one month. A delusion is a firmly held belief that is not based in reality and is resistant to rational argument or confrontation with evidence to the contrary.

Superstitions are beliefs or practices that are based on the idea that certain actions, events, or objects can bring good or bad luck. These beliefs are often rooted in folklore, cultural traditions, or religious rituals and are not supported by scientific evidence. Superstitions can vary widely across different cultures and may involve specific rituals, the avoidance of certain actions or objects, or the belief in omens.

Alief is a term used in philosophy and cognitive science to describe a type of mental state that is distinct from beliefs and desires. It refers to an automatic, often unconscious response to situations that can conflict with a person's explicitly held beliefs. Alief can be thought of as an instinctive or behavioral response that influences how a person reacts to certain stimuli, regardless of their conscious beliefs.

The Belief-Desire-Intention (BDI) model is a framework used in artificial intelligence and cognitive science to model human and agent behavior. It is based on the idea that the way individuals make decisions and act can be understood through three core mental components: 1. **Beliefs**: These represent the information that an agent has about the world. Beliefs can include facts about the environment, the agent’s current state, and knowledge of other agents or entities.

Consensus reality refers to the set of beliefs, perceptions, and understandings that a group of individuals agree upon, which helps to create a shared sense of existence and social norms. It is the reality that most people in a given society or community accept as true, often based on common experiences, cultural background, and societal norms. This concept is particularly significant in psychology, sociology, and philosophy because it highlights how subjective experiences and collective agreement shape what is considered "real" or "true.

Contemporary cynicism often refers to a skeptical or distrustful attitude towards social institutions, political systems, and broader societal norms. Unlike classical cynicism, which originated with the ancient Greek philosophical school founded by Diogenes of Sinope, contemporary cynicism is not necessarily rooted in philosophical principles but instead reflects a reaction to modern disillusionment.

Denial is a psychological defense mechanism characterized by a refusal to accept reality or facts. It involves rejecting or dismissing the existence of uncomfortable, painful, or troubling thoughts, feelings, or situations. Denial can manifest in various ways, such as: 1. **Individual Level**: A person may deny a medical diagnosis, indicating they refuse to acknowledge a serious health issue.