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The ground state is the single energy eigenstate ${\psi }_0$. Its coefficient in the normalized wavefunction is $\sqrt{2/3}$, so the Born rule givesThis probability is independent of $t$ because unitary time evolution changes only the dynamical phases of the energy eigenstates.

The parity operator exchanges ${\psi }_n$ and ${\psi }_{-n}$. Their coefficients in the wavefunction are equal, soThus the wavefunction is a parity operator eigenstate with eigenvalue $+1$ at every time. The orthogonal projection onto the $-1$ eigenspace is $(I-R)/2$, which annihilates it. By the Born rule,

The initial quantum state is ${\psi }_1$, up to global phase, and ${\psi }_1=({\chi }_{+}+{\chi }_{-})/\sqrt{2}$. Applying unitary time evolution givesSince $J_3{\psi }_1=(\hslash /2){\psi }_1$ and $J_3{\psi }_2=-(\hslash /2){\psi }_2$, the Born rule givesThe other outcome has probability ${\sin }^2(\omega t)$, verifying that the two probabilities sum to one. This is a two-level quantum return probability.

By the Born rule, the probability for a measured energy eigenvalue is the squared norm of the orthogonal projection onto its whole energy eigenspace. ThusEvery other energy eigenvalue has probability zero. These probabilities are independent of $T$: unitary time evolution under the unchanged Hamiltonian operator changes the dynamical phases but not the squared expansion coefficients. The two equal-energy terms describe one measurement outcome.

For an arc represented by $0\le x\le a$, take $0\le a\le 2\pi R$. The Born rule usesIntegrate using ${\cos }^{2}u=(1+\cos 2u)/2$:The result is zero at $a=0$ and one at $a=2\pi R$, checking the wavefunction normalization. At $s=0$ it reduces to $a/(2\pi R)+\sin (4a/R)/(8\pi )$, the stationary position probability. Longer intervals on the periodically identified coordinate require specifying the corresponding subset of the circle; integrating multiple turns would count the same positions repeatedly.

Diagonalizing the $J_1$ matrix gives the normalized eigenvectorswith eigenvalues $+\hslash ,0,-\hslash$, respectively. The first projective measurement prepares $v_{+}$ up to global phase, regardless of the earlier state, conditional on obtaining $+\hslash$.

The unitary time evolution under $H=\omega J_3$ gives, with $\theta =\omega t$,The probability amplitudes for the second projective measurement areThe Born rule therefore gives the general spin-one transverse measurement after axial precession:At the specified times $t_k=\pi k/\omega$, $\theta =\pi k$, soFor even $k$, the result is certainly $+\hslash$; for odd $k$, it is certainly $-\hslash$. Although zero belongs to the spectrum of the observable, it never occurs at these times. Indeed, for even $k$ the evolved vector is $v_{+}$, while for odd $k$ it is $-v_{-}$, where the minus sign is a global phase.

Apply the position version of the Born rule to the normalized wavefunction:The result is independent of $L$ because the state and the measurement interval scale together. Most position probability lies towards the right wall, since the probability density grows as $x^2$.

In the stated ordered propagation basis, a downward input is transmitted downward and reflected upward, giving the first column $(1,1{)}^T/\sqrt{2}$. An upward input is reflected downward with the opposite reflection phase and transmitted upward, giving the second column $(-1,1{)}^T/\sqrt{2}$. ThereforeEqual mirror reflection phases exchange the two directions. Choosing a phase of $\pi$ per reflection givesEach path encounters one mirror, so $M$ describes both arms together, not two successive reflections of each photon. Changing its common phase leaves all detection probabilities unchanged. Direct multiplication gives $B^{†}B=M^{†}M=I$, so both are unitary matrices. They preserve the norm of a quantum state and hence total probability for these lossless optical elements.

Ideal detectors are represented by measurement matrices, but detection itself is not unitary evolution within the two traveling modes. With $e_1=(1,0{)}^T$ and $e_2=(0,1{)}^T$, the projective measurement operators areThey give Born rule probabilities $⟨\psi |P_j|\psi ⟩$ and sum to $I$. An absorbing detector maps the incident photon to an excited detector and vacuum field; a complete physical description includes those additional degrees of freedom.

For an axis halfway from $+z$ toward $+x$, let $|n+⟩=\cos (\pi /8)|\uparrow ⟩+\sin (\pi /8)|\downarrow ⟩$. The Born rule givesThe negative-outcome probabilities are complementary. Both outcomes can occur for both inputs, so one result cannot distinguish them perfectly. Repeated measurements on independently prepared copies distinguish their different statistics with arbitrarily high confidence. Reversing the diagonal direction exchanges the two numbers. This separates single-copy certainty from statistical distinguishability.

A vertical Stern-Gerlach spin measurement is a $z$-spin measurement. The Born rule givesThus this measurement cannot distinguish the two preparations, even by repeating the same measurement on many identically prepared copies: it discards their relative-phase difference in this basis.

For a normalized quantum state, $|\alpha {|}^2+|\beta {|}^2=1$, and the Born rule gives $\boxed{p(z+)=|\alpha {|}^2,p(z-)=|\beta {|}^2}$. If the displayed coefficients are not normalized, divide both by $|\alpha {|}^2+|\beta {|}^2$. A quantum superposition is a coherent linear combination: relative phase affects other spin measurements, unlike an incoherent statistical mixture with the same $z$-measurement probabilities.

Every pure qubit quantum state is an eigenstate of spin along some axis. Its Bloch vector isFor real normalized $\alpha ,\beta$, choose $\theta$ modulo $2\pi$ with $\alpha =\cos (\theta /2)$ and $\beta =\sin (\theta /2)$, allowing an irrelevant global sign. ThenEquivalently, $S_{\mathbf{n}}=(\hslash /2)\left(\begin{array}{cc}{\alpha }^2-{\beta }^2& 2\alpha \beta \\ 2\alpha \beta & {\beta }^2-{\alpha }^2\end{array}\right)$. A Stern-Gerlach spin measurement on this axis yields its positive result with certainty, so the state is not a nontrivial quantum superposition in that measurement basis.

Measuring the first qubit applies $P_0=|0⟩⟨0|\otimes I$ or $P_1=|1⟩⟨1|\otimes I$. The Born rule givesThe normalized conditional quantum states areEach expression applies only when its denominator is nonzero; an impossible outcome has no defined conditional state.

Expand a normalized product state asThus $\alpha =ac$, $\beta =ad$, $\gamma =bc$, $\delta =bd$, givingConversely the nonzero coefficient matrix $C=\left(\begin{array}{cc}\alpha & \beta \\ \gamma & \delta \end{array}\right)$ has determinant zero precisely when it has rank one, so the condition also suffices for a pure two-qubit state to factor.

For any fixed pair of local measurement settings with operators $E_i,F_j$, the Born rule factorizes:Hence a product state has independent local results in every pair of local bases. This assumes independent settings and local measurements; shared classical randomization of preparations or a subsequent joint interaction can generate correlations. A separable mixture is not necessarily a single product state.

The wave function is a probability amplitude: by the Born rule, $|\psi (x){|}^{2}dx$ is the probability of a position measurement in an interval of width $dx$. For a normalized bound state $\int |\psi {|}^{2}dx=1$, the expected values areThe integrals run over the allowed domain. If the given state is not normalized, divide both by $\int |\psi {|}^{2}dx$. Its variance is $⟨x^2⟩-⟨x{⟩}^2$; neither $\psi$ itself nor its overall phase is a directly measured position probability.

In Bohmian mechanics, the corpuscles supply an actual configuration of matter, not a further branch of the wave function. Their positions and the guiding wave together specify the physical state. In a common nonrelativistic spinless formulation, the wave obeys the Schrödinger equation while the actual configuration $Q=(Q_1,\dots ,Q_N)$ obeyswhere the expression is applied away from nodes of $\Psi$. These are coupled in the sense that the wave guides the configuration; in the standard theory the wave's Schrödinger evolution does not receive a reciprocal source term from the actual particle positions. This is not a model of classical little balls carrying every ordinary observable as a pre-existing intrinsic attribute.

The point of adding a configuration is especially clear in a measurement. A wave may evolve into several macroscopically separated pointer packets. The apparatus's actual particle configuration lies in one packet, so there is a definite pointer record even though the full wave has not undergone fundamental collapse. The corpuscles thereby connect the mathematical description with the location of actual apparatus, records and observers. David Bohm's original papers provide a theory of individual processes and analyse measurement in this spirit.^[ref][ref]

For a subsystem, inserting the actual environment configuration into the universal wave gives a conditional wave function, schematically $\psi (x,t)\propto \Psi (x,Y(t),t)$. If the branches are suitably disjoint in the environment's configuration coordinates and remain dynamically isolated, the occupied branch supplies an effective collapse in Bohmian mechanics. The unoccupied branches are not simply erased by definition: before permanent separation, wave packets can recombine and affect interference. The conditional and effective wave-function constructions make this distinction precise.^[ref]

The Born rule also needs an account. The guidance current is $j_k=(\hslash /m_k)\mathrm{Im}({\Psi }^{\ast }{\nabla }_k\Psi )$, and both $|\Psi {|}^2$ and an ensemble of guided configurations satisfy the associated continuity equation. Hence an initial quantum equilibrium distribution $\rho =|\Psi {|}^2$ is preserved. Equivariance supports the ordinary statistical predictions, but the guidance law alone does not prove that an arbitrarily prepared ensemble has that distribution.

The corpuscles are therefore neither detectors that a conscious observer adds to the theory nor dispensable labels attached after the statistics have been calculated. They constitute a primitive ontology that provides definite configurations, trajectories and records. Whether this is preferable to a wave-only ontology is a further explanatory judgement; its empirical equivalence in quantum equilibrium does not make the two accounts identical in their claims about what exists.

An apparent collapse is the transition from predicting several possible recorded outcomes to describing a particular recorded result. Whether that transition is a physical discontinuity, a conditional state update or an effective description depends on what the wave function is taken to represent. The practical success of collapse-based calculation does not by itself settle that interpretive question.

The difficulty is exposed by unitary time evolution. An ideal apparatus that reliably measures a basis hasLinearity then makes a superposed input evolve asThis is an entangled state, not automatically one pointer packet or the other. A separate projection rule would instead select one recorded outcome, with Born rule weights, and assign its corresponding conditional state.

Quantum decoherence explains much of the practical appearance of a classical record. Interaction with an environment correlates the packets with nearly orthogonal environment states. The subsystem's reduced density matrix then has very small interference terms between the pointer alternatives. Local experiments on that subsystem approximately agree with a diagonal mixture. But this is an improper mixture: the total state can remain a pure superposition. Taking a partial trace has not selected one term of the total state. Suppression of observable interference and the occurrence of a unique absolute outcome are distinct claims.

There is a measurement problem if one simultaneously insists that the wave function is the complete physical description, that its evolution is universally unitary, and that a measurement has exactly one absolute outcome of the ordinary recorded kind. The ideal model shows why simply applying the same unitary law to a larger apparatus does not make that combination work. Nor does calling collapse a change in knowledge solve the problem for someone who has already taken the wave function to be a complete ontic state.

Different interpretations revise different parts of this package. Bohmian mechanics adds an actual configuration and obtains effective subsystem collapse while the total wave evolves unitarily. The many-worlds interpretation retains the total superposition and treats each record as definite relative to its decohering branch. A stochastic collapse theory instead modifies the physical dynamics. Everett's original proposal explicitly separates his relative-state account from an additional collapse postulate.^[ref]

Thus collapse is not problematic merely because conditional probabilities change when a record is learned. The problem is the status of that record and of the dynamical rule used to describe it. A defensible interpretation must explain when its updating rule is applicable, what makes a record definite in its own ontology, and why the ordinary measurement statistics follow. No appeal to human consciousness is required by the displayed unitary measurement model.

Born rule probabilities can be given a coherent role in an Everettian interpretation, but that role cannot simply be the chance that one branch alone will be created. In the many-worlds interpretation, unitary measurement produces all of the decohering outcome components. The question is why their squared amplitudes should govern rational expectation, typical recorded frequencies or concern for future observers.

For a state ${\sum }_i{c}_i|s_i⟩$ and a measuring apparatus, the resulting correlated state has components $c_i|s_i⟩|A_i⟩$. The squared norms $w_i=|c_i{|}^2$ supply additive branch weights. They are preserved by unitary refinements of an outcome into orthogonal subcomponents: if a branch splits internally, its descendants' weights sum to its original weight. Everett's original paper introduces the relative-state description and a measure associated with the statistical analysis; this should not be confused with an independent stochastic collapse law.^[ref]

A simple example shows why counting branches is not an alternative rule without further structure. Begin withIf an irrelevant environment interaction refines B into two orthogonal components of equal amplitude, there are now three displayed components, each of amplitude $1/\sqrt{3}$. The total weight of B is still $2/3$. Counting displayed components instead changes A's assigned share from $1/2$ to $1/3$, merely because the description has resolved additional environmental detail. Real decoherent branching is approximate and has no unique fundamental branch count. Squared norm, in contrast, respects such refinements.

There are at least two ways to understand the remaining epistemic issue. An observer may have self-locating uncertainty in Everettian quantum mechanics, especially after branching but before accessing a record: the uncertainty concerns which centred observer situation is theirs, not ignorance of the global wave function. Alternatively, a decision-theoretic account can ask how a present observer should value all future successors without assuming that exactly one successor is uniquely them. These are distinct proposals, and the second does not become incoherent simply because the first is disputed.

David Wallace's decision-theoretic programme argues that suitable rationality and measurement-equivalence assumptions lead to expected-utility weights equal to squared amplitudes. The assumptions, including the appropriate neutrality of the measurement implementation, do real work.^[ref] A critic can question whether the constraints already privilege the desired measure or whether a preference theorem establishes the empirical role of chance. The defender must answer those objections; unitarity and normalization alone do not automatically turn a deterministic global theory into ordinary single-outcome randomness.

Repeated experiments add a consistency check. With Born weights, the total weight of frequency records is binomial and concentrates near the Born frequency as the number of trials increases. Yet calling the high-weight records typical already uses a measure, so this is not by itself a noncircular derivation of the weighting rule. The balanced conclusion is that Born probabilities are not meaningless in Everettian quantum mechanics: they can organize credence, decisions and typical records. Their status requires an argued connection between branch weights and those roles, rather than a bare appeal either to all outcomes happening or to the algebraic identity ${\sum }_i|c_i{|}^2=1$.

The one-dimensional Time-dependent Schrödinger equation isThe left side generates time evolution; the two terms on the right are the kinetic and potential parts of the Hamiltonian operator. For a time-independent potential and an energy eigenstate, set $\psi (x,t)=\varphi (x)e^{-iEt/\hslash }$. Cancelling the time factor gives the time-independent Schrödinger equation, $-{\hslash }^2{\varphi }^{\prime \prime }/(2m)+V\varphi =E\varphi$.

By the Born rule, $|\psi {|}^{2}dx$ is the position probability in an interval of width $dx$, with $\int |\psi {|}^{2}dx=1$ for a normalized particle. Therefore $\boxed{[\psi ]={\mathrm{length}}^{-1/2}}$ in one dimension. An ideal scattering plane wave instead uses flux normalization and is not itself a normalizable single-particle state on the whole line.

The normalized linear polarization state is $|\theta ⟩=\cos \theta |H⟩+\sin \theta |V⟩$. A transmitted-photon count implements the projector $|\theta ⟩⟨\theta |$. The Born rule givesthe single-photon form of Malus's law, assuming ideal polarizers and detection.

In the many-worlds interpretation, the universal state evolves unitarily. A measurement transforms $(\alpha |0⟩+\beta |1⟩)|M_{\ast }⟩$ into $\alpha |0,M_0⟩+\beta |1,M_1⟩$. Environmental decoherence suppresses interference between macroscopically distinct records, so each branch contains a consistent observer record of one outcome. There is no stochastic selection of a unique global result in that dynamics. Thus fundamental indeterministic collapse is not recovered; it is deliberately absent.

The appearance of indeterminism can nevertheless be described branch-relatively. Before examining a record, an observer lacks information about which recorded result will be encountered in a future branch-relative history. After measurement, each descendant has one stable record and experiences a definite result. This is more than saying that a classical observer does not know a predetermined hidden bit, because the global state includes multiple continuing record structures rather than one unknown selected trajectory.

The hard question is why uncertainty or rational expectation should follow the Born weights $|\alpha {|}^2,|\beta {|}^2$. Decoherence explains approximately autonomous records and a preferred coarse-grained basis, but does not by itself turn all branch counts into a unique measure. Literal counting is ill-defined because branches do not have a uniquely fixed number. Decision-theoretic, symmetry or typicality arguments try to justify squared-amplitude weights and their role in observed frequencies, but their auxiliary assumptions must be assessed rather than silently called consequences of unitary dynamics alone.

The interpretation can therefore account structurally for the appearance of definite unpredictable outcomes without adding dynamical randomness. Whether that completely accounts for probability depends on a successful connection from branch weights to expectation and confirmation. Its strength is a uniform dynamical law for system and observer; its cost is an ontology and probability account that go beyond the experience of one apparently unique outcome.^[ref]