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His sustained frictional heating observations challenged a finite-store account of heat.

For the normalized damped pendulum, the sum of kinetic energy and gravitational potential energy, divided by $mg\ell$, isThe chain rule and the full nonlinear equation give this identity exactly, without a small-angle approximation. Here $\dot{\theta }=d\theta /d\tau$ as in damped pendulum. In physical units the mechanical energy and the power of the resisting torque areThe pendulum's lost mechanical energy is transferred to the damper and surroundings; it does not violate conservation of energy. In an ideal viscous dashpot this loss is frictional heating. The exact cumulative balance is particularly useful for checking a numerical solution:

The figure uses $c=0.20$ and release from rest. Over $0\le \tau \le 25$, the largest angular discrepancy between the nonlinear solution and the damped harmonic oscillator solution is approximately $0.000702\mathrm{rad}$ ($0.0402^{\circ }$) for a $10^{\circ }$ release, but $0.14995\mathrm{rad}$ ($8.592^{\circ }$) for a $60^{\circ }$ release. Their nonlinear initial energies are $1-\cos 10^{\circ }\approx 0.015192$ and $1-\cos 60^{\circ }=0.5$, respectively. At $\tau =25$ the remaining fractions are approximately $0.0064080$ and $0.0063757$. These are illustrative calculations from specified initial conditions, not observations. The generator uses a Runge-Kutta method and integrates $Q$ alongside the motion; halving its step and independently integrating $c{\dot{\theta }}^2$ checks the result.

For $\ell =1\mathrm{m}$ and $g=9.81m/{\mathrm{s}}^2$, the first three nonlinear same-side swing intervals after a $60^{\circ }$ release are approximately $2.1008$, $2.0378$, and $2.0221\mathrm{s}$. They approach the linear-model oscillation period $2.0162\mathrm{s}$ as the amplitude shrinks. After a $10^{\circ }$ release the corresponding intervals are already about $2.0185$, $2.0168$, and $2.0164\mathrm{s}$. This makes the experiment's period drift a quantitative test of the small-angle approximation, rather than an automatic reason to change the damping coefficient.

At a turning point, $\dot{\theta }=0$ and $\dot{E}=0$ even though the swing is losing mechanical energy over the cycle. Its potential energy there is $E_n=1-\cos A_n$, so measured turning angles give successive energies without estimating angular velocity. In the proposed decay experiment, multiply these values by $mg\ell$ to obtain energies in joules, then subtract adjacent same-side energies to estimate the loss over each full swing. Only for small amplitudes is $E_n\simeq A_n^2/2$. In the linear underdamped model, same-side peak energies consequently satisfy $E_{n+1}/E_n=e^{-\gamma T_d}$, the square of the angular amplitude ratio. For the illustrative parameters above this energy ratio is approximately $0.2828$. Between turning points, kinetic energy and potential energy continue to exchange while their sum decreases; the energy slope vanishes briefly at each extremum and is negative whenever the bob moves.

It is therefore inaccurate to replace the exact identity by $\dot{E}=-cE$. Even for the linear model, $E_{\mathrm{lin}}=({\dot{\theta }}^2+{\theta }^2)/2$ has ${\dot{E}}_{\mathrm{lin}}=-c{\dot{\theta }}^2$. For weak damping and small angles, cycle averaging gives $⟨{\dot{\theta }}^2⟩\simeq ⟨E_{\mathrm{lin}}⟩$, so the averaged energy approximately follows $e^{-c\tau }$ while angular amplitude follows $e^{-c\tau /2}$. This exponential decay is an approximation to the energy trace; the same-side peak ratio is exact within the linear model. The figure distinguishes the actual energy curves from this averaging approximation.

The energy identity also gives a global conclusion without solving the nonlinear equation. If $E$ were constant on a positive-length interval, then $\dot{\theta }$ would vanish throughout it; the equation would force $\sin \theta =0$, making the entire trajectory an equilibrium. Every nonstationary trajectory therefore loses mechanical energy over every positive-length interval, even though its instantaneous derivative can vanish at a turning point. A nonconstant periodic motion would have to return to its initial mechanical energy, so it is impossible for this undriven damped pendulum. Oscillations near a stable focus are successive, shrinking swings, not a repeating cycle. Moreover, if $E(0)<2$, the angle cannot reach an upright equilibrium, whose potential energy is $2$; such motion stays within its original potential well. This is the usefulness of the energy description: one scalar balance controls both the observed decay and which nonlinear motions remain accessible.

In the ideal kinetic friction model, the loss of combined mechanical energy of the two contacting bodies becomes thermal internal energy at rateThis follows by adding the contact powers $f_{k}v$ and $-f_{k}U$ from Newton's third law. It depends on contact slip, whereas the contact power received by either body separately depends on its velocity in the chosen inertial frame. Thus positive frictional heating is compatible with increasing kinetic energy of one body, as the moving-belt example in kinetic friction shows. Heating need not cause a temperature rise if thermal energy escapes by heat transfer.

A glacial lake outburst flood is rapid release of water stored in or behind glacial ice or its associated dam. Melt-driven enlargement of a subglacial channel can create positive feedback between discharge, frictional heating and further channel opening. Lake depletion and pressure-dependent material creep closure then alter the event. Channel models explain one mechanism and should not be taken as a universal description of every glacial flood.

Kinetic friction is friction during nonzero contact slip. For one-dimensional motion along a surface, choose right as positive and write $v$ for the body's contact-point velocity and $U$ for the surface's contact-point velocity, both measured in the same inertial frame. The signed relative velocity is $w=v-U$. The ideal Coulomb law for the tangential force on the body isHere $N\ge 0$ is the magnitude of the normal force, ${\mu }_k\ge 0$ is the coefficient of kinetic friction, and $\mathrm{sgn}$ is the sign function. Thus kinetic friction opposes contact slip, which can differ from the body's direction of motion. In several tangential directions the same law reads ${\mathbf{f}}_k=-{\mu }_{k}N\mathbf{w}/|\mathbf{w}|$ for a nonzero tangential relative velocity $\mathbf{w}$. The magnitude law is documented in Ling, Sanny and Moebs, OpenStax University Physics 1, §6.2: static and kinetic friction.

For a stipulated toy model, take a nonrotating box with mass $m=1\mathrm{kg}$, normal force $N=10\mathrm{N}$, coefficient of static friction ${\mu }_s=0.5$, and coefficient of kinetic friction ${\mu }_k=0.3$. These are assumed model parameters, rather than measured properties of any particular pair of materials; the prescribed normal force is consistent with horizontal support under $g=10m/{\mathrm{s}}^2$ and no other vertical forces. On stationary ground, a box already sliding right has $f_k=-3\mathrm{N}$. With an applied horizontal force $F=6\mathrm{N}$ to the right, Newton's second law gives $a=(F+f_k)/m=3m/{\mathrm{s}}^2$, for as long as rightward contact slip persists.

Direction is clearer by comparing two instantaneous states of this same model. If the box has $v=1m/s$ on stationary ground, $U=0$ and $w=+1m/s$, so kinetic friction acts left with magnitude $3\mathrm{N}$. If the box still has $v=1m/s$ but a belt beneath it has $U=2m/s$, then $w=-1m/s$: kinetic friction acts right with magnitude $3\mathrm{N}$, even while the box moves right.

In the belt case, the power delivered to the box is $P_{\mathrm{box}}=f_{k}v=+3\mathrm{W}$. With no other horizontal force, its kinetic energy therefore increases by the work-energy theorem. By Newton's third law, the box exerts $-f_k$ on the belt, so the contact power delivered to the belt is $P_{\mathrm{belt}}=-f_{k}U=-6\mathrm{W}$. Their sum is $-3\mathrm{W}$: frictional heating produces thermal internal energy at $3\mathrm{W}$. An ideal motor maintaining the prescribed belt velocity supplies $+6\mathrm{W}$ against this contact load, neglecting other losses, so its input divides into $3\mathrm{W}$ of box kinetic energy and $3\mathrm{W}$ of frictional heating. These are instantaneous rates, since the box's velocity subsequently changes. This balance follows directly from power as force times velocity and conservation of energy; the power law is given in Ling, Sanny and Moebs, OpenStax University Physics 1, §7.4: power.

When contact slip vanishes, including a transition to rolling without slipping, the nonzero-slip law no longer applies. Determine the required static friction from the no-slip condition and the equations of motion, then test its bound. Substituting $\mathrm{sgn}(0)=0$ into the sliding law would incorrectly exclude a nonzero static friction.

Support for the left curve comes from high laboratory friction and substantial in situ differential stress; support for the right curve comes from low inferred fault traction, weak fault materials or high pore pressure. No single observation directly measures the whole plotted envelope.

For the left, stronger shallow-crust model:

For the right, weak shallow-layer model:

To discriminate, measure the strength-controlling quantities through depth and across both faults and their surroundings. Obtain borehole stress, pore pressure and temperature profiles where feasible; use borehole breakouts and hydraulic tests to constrain effective stress. Recover fault and host rocks and test their friction and material creep at relevant fluid conditions. The right curve specifically predicts an end to the shallow weakening near its sharp rise: investigate changes in permeability of a porous medium, alteration and fault gouge with depth, rather than testing only a surface sample.

Combine those measurements with heat flux transects, magnetotelluric sounding for conductive fluids, accurate earthquake depths and focal mechanisms, and GNSS or InSAR observations of deformation. The latter can help constrain the depth distribution of locking and postseismic relaxation, but neither locking nor seismicity alone gives absolute strength. Earthquake stress drop is a change in stress, not the pre-event stress. Low heat flux can also reflect heat transport or transient weakening; high electrical conductivity can have causes other than free water. A joint explanation of all these data is needed to choose between the models locally.

Authors: Jeanne L. Hardebeck, Andrew J. Michael.

Journal of Geophysical Research 109, B11303. Tests stress-orientation evidence for strong and weak fault models, discussing limits of frictional heating and borehole observations.