For a positive integer $m$, the negative matrix power is differentiable on the open general linear group. The Neumann series gives $(A+H{)}^{-1}=A^{-1}-A^{-1}H{A}^{-1}+O(\Vert H{\Vert }^2)$ locally around any invertible matrix. Applying the product rule to the $m$ factors of this inverse gives the displayed Fréchet derivative. Each summand chooses one inverse factor to differentiate while keeping the others in order.

The factor order matters. Only when $A$ and $H$ commute does the sum simplify to $-m{A}^{-(m+1)}H$. This is a useful example of why scalar differentiation rules for powers cannot be transferred to matrices without accounting for noncommutativity.

Let $c(u)$ be the Black-Scholes formula value divided by stock price for an at-the-money call of duration $u$. On a discrete set of possible entry dates, homogeneous function and the discounted stock martingale reduce the Snell envelope to $b_i=\max (c(T-T_i),b_{i+1})$, with zero terminal value. Thus the displayed maximum is exact. When $r>0$ and volatility is positive, $c$ increases with maturity, so immediate entry is optimal and the initial value equals the ordinary at-the-money European call option. The maximum recursion remains useful if a different parameter regime loses that monotonicity.

For adequate arithmetic provability predicates, the arithmetized deduction theorem identifies inconsistency of $S+\neg {\mathrm{Con}}_S$ with $S$-provability of ${\mathrm{Con}}_S$. Formalized second incompleteness gives ${\square }_S{\mathrm{Con}}_S\to {\square }_S\perp$. Contraposition yields the displayed conditional. This is an internal theorem and does not license removal of its consistency premise.

Take Lebesgue decompositions relative to a fixed finite positive measure $\kappa$. The finite union $S$ of null supports of their singular components is still $\kappa$-null. On $S$ each original measure equals its singular component; on $S^c$ it equals its absolutely continuous component. Restriction commutes with the partition formula defining the finite supremum of positive measures. Thus the supremum restricts to ${\bigvee }_i{\mu }_i^s$ on $S$ and to ${\bigvee }_i{\mu }_i^a$ off $S$. The latter is absolutely continuous with respect to $\kappa$ because it is bounded by the sum of the absolutely continuous components. Uniqueness of the Lebesgue decomposition proves the displayed identities, and the Radon-Nikodym derivative of the absolutely continuous component is the pointwise maximum of the individual derivatives.

Attempt scalar multiplication on an elliptic curve modulo a composite integer. An addition denominator that is not invertible yields a greatest common divisor with the modulus; a value strictly between one and the modulus is a factor. The method exploits different orders of the reduced point at the unknown prime factors. For $y^2=x^3+5x-5$ modulo $221$, doubling $(1,1)$ gives $(14,-53)$; adding the original point requires division by thirteen, revealing $221=13\cdot 17$.

For the displayed integral equation, reduce its polynomial modulo a prime number $p$. Singular points satisfy $y^2-x^3-c=-3x^2=2y=0$. For $p>3$, they exist exactly when $p\mid c$, and the sole point is $(0,0)$. At $p=2$, the sole point over ${\mathbb{F}}_2$ is $(0,\overline{c})$; at $p=3$, it is $(-\overline{c},0)$ because cubing is the identity on ${\mathbb{F}}_3$. For $c=17$, this gives primes $2,3,17$ and points $(0,1),(1,0),(0,0)$ respectively. This concerns the specified plane equation; intrinsic good or bad reduction of an elliptic curve can require choosing a different integral model, especially at primes two and three.

Every invertible square matrix is a product of elementary matrices. Gaussian elimination reduces $A$ to the identity matrix by elementary row operations, giving $F_r\cdots F_{1}A=I$. Reverse their order and invert them to write $A=F_1^{-1}\cdots F_r^{-1}$. Each inverse is again elementary. Conversely every elementary matrix is invertible, so every such product is invertible. The identity may be represented by the empty product.

Elbow flexion decreases the angle between upper arm and forearm at the elbow. Contributors include the brachialis and biceps brachii. Their mechanical contributions change with joint position and, for the latter, forearm orientation.

Elbow extension increases the angle between upper arm and forearm at the elbow. The triceps brachii is its principal muscular contributor. The resulting movement depends on joint position, external load and the line of pull.

The olecranon is the proximal projection of the ulna forming the point of the elbow. Attachment of the triceps brachii connects contraction to elbow extension, illustrating how a bony projection supplies a mechanical lever.

Stop the four-ball Ehrenfest urn model upon reaching count zero or four. From count $r$, the transitions are to $r-1$ with Probability $r/4$ and to $r+1$ with Probability $(4-r)/4$. First-step analysis with absorbing boundary values gives the displayed vector $h$ of probabilities of absorption at zero and vector $t$ of expected hitting times of either endpoint. For instance, $t_1=1+3t_2/4$ and $t_2=1+(t_1+t_3)/2$, with $t_1=t_3$, give $t_1=7$. From any interior state, absorption has Probability at least $1/4$ within two steps; the resulting geometric tail bound proves both almost-sure absorption and finiteness of the expectations.

Let $A$ be a doubly stochastic matrix, let $q$ be a probability vector, and put $w=Aq$. In row $i$ with $w_i>0$, define $r_i(j)=a_{ij}{q}_j/w_i$ on the support where $a_{ij}>0$. The positive row entries ${\alpha }_i=(a_{ij})$ form a probability vector. Expanding relative entropy and using the column sums givesZero-output rows contribute zero because all their $a_{ij}{q}_j$ vanish. The row sums supply the normalized comparison laws, while the column sums preserve the input entropy contribution. Equality holds exactly when $q_j=w_i$ for every positive matrix entry $a_{ij}$, including the automatic zero values in zero-output rows.

For a Lebesgue measurable set $E\subseteq \mathbb{R}$ of finite measure, the displayed function satisfies $|H_E(t)-H_E(s)|\le |t-s|$. Indeed, for $s<t$, finite additivity and monotonicity of a measure give $H_E(t)-H_E(s)=m(E\cap (s,t])\le t-s$. Thus $H_E$ is a nondecreasing Lipschitz function and is uniformly continuous even if $E$ is unbounded.

Continuity from above of a measure gives $H_E(t)\to 0$ as $t\to -\infty$, while continuity from below of a measure gives $H_E(t)\to m(E)$ as $t\to \infty$. Every strictly intermediate value is attained by the intermediate value theorem. The corresponding half-line cut of $E$ realizes any prescribed measure between zero and $m(E)$; the endpoints are realized by the empty set and $E$ itself.

A smooth embedded invariant two-torus in three-dimensional Euclidean phase space bounds a solid torus of positive volume. The vector field is tangent to its boundary, so its normal flux is zero. If the divergence is strictly negative throughout the enclosed volume, the divergence theorem gives a strictly negative flux, a contradiction. Thus a globally negative-divergence three-dimensional vector field has no such quasiperiodic invariant torus. This argument is stronger than merely noting contraction of transported phase volume; an attractor's own zero volume is not a contradiction.

For a normalized two-dimensional discrete Laplacian satisfying the discrete maximum principle, suppose quadratic functions are differentiated exactly and $L_{h}1=0$. In a domain of diameter $D$, choose $x_0$ in the domain and $\varphi (x)=|x-x_0{|}^2$. Then $0\le \varphi \le D^2$ and $L_h\varphi =4$. Applying the discrete elliptic barrier argument to zero-boundary error $L_{h}e=\tau$ gives the displayed bound. A mere sign pattern of the stencil does not determine this constant: rescaling the whole operator changes the error-to-residual ratio without changing the domain diameter.

A functional on a Banach space is Gâteaux differentiable at $v$ when the directional limits exist and form a bounded linear functional of $h$. Fréchet differentiability is stronger, requiring a remainder uniformly small compared with the norm of the increment. A quadratic norm bound on the Taylor remainder gives the stronger property directly. Mere existence of unrelated directional limits would not establish linear differentiability.

A monotone map preserving suprema of nonempty directed sets. Between pointed domains it need not send bottom to bottom. The pointwise directed supremum of a directed family of such maps is again Scott continuous: interchange the two directed suprema in ${\sup }_f{\sup }_{x\in A}f(x)$.

Take two increasing countable chains sharing a least element $\perp$ and a greatest element $\top$, with interiors $a_1<a_2<\cdots$ and $b_1<b_2<\cdots$ and no comparisons between branches. Each entire interior chain has $\top$ as its least upper bound. A directed set meeting both interiors must contain $\top$. Otherwise it lies within one branch, where it has either a greatest member or least upper bound $\top$. This proves that the partially ordered set is a directed-complete partial order.

The only element way-below $a_n$ is $\perp$. Indeed, an element way-below $a_n$ must be below $a_n$, but every positive $a_m\le a_n$ fails the way-below relation when tested against $\{b_1,b_2,\dots \}$: its least upper bound is $\top \ge a_n$, yet it has no member above $a_m$. Nonempty directed sets always contain an element above $\perp$, so $\perp \ll a_n$. Thus the elements way-below $a_n$ have least upper bound $\perp \ne a_n$, and this is not a continuous poset.

Two projective triangles are in perspectivity from a point when the three projective lines joining corresponding vertices meet in one projective point, called their center of perspectivity.

Two projective triangles are in perspectivity from a line when the three intersections of corresponding sides lie on one projective line, called their axis of perspectivity. In the nondegenerate setting this is dual to perspectivity from a point under point-line duality.