For the polynomial $F(n)=n(n+2)$, take $\rho (2)=1$ and $\rho (p)=2$ at odd primes. On odd squarefree integers, the summand is at least $2^{\omega (d)}/d$. Put $y=\sqrt{z}$ and $L(y)={\sum }_{a\le y,a\text{ odd}}1/a=\frac{1}{2}\log y+O(1)$. The weight of odd pairs $a,b\le y$ is $L(y{)}^2$. The pairs for which $a$ is not squarefree, $b$ is not squarefree, or $(a,b)>1$ each have weight at most $L(y{)}^2{\sum }_{p\text{ odd}}{p}^{-2}$. Indeed, the weighted count of multiples of an odd $p^k$ is $p^{-k}L(y/p^k)\le p^{-k}L(y)$. Moreover,Hence the odd coprime squarefree pairs have weight at least $L(y{)}^2/6$. Their products $d=ab\le z$ are squarefree, and $2^{\omega (d)}$ counts all ordered coprime factorizations of $d$. This proves the displayed lower bound needed for the Selberg upper-bound sieve.

A binary form is a homogeneous polynomial in two variables. Degree-$d$ binary forms give the symmetric-power representation of the standard two-dimensional representation of $S{L}_2$, after using its invariant alternating form to identify the standard representation with its dual.

For the standard normal density, $f^{\prime \prime }(x)=(x^2-1)f(x)$ and $R(f^{\prime \prime })=3/(8\sqrt{\pi })$. The fifth power of the bandwidth ratio is $3\sqrt{2}{e}^{x^2/2}/[8(x^2-1{)}^2]$. Its global minima occur at $x=\pm \sqrt{5}$; $x=0$ is only the minimum within the interval between the two inflection points. The ratio diverges as $x$ approaches either inflection point.

The Scott continuous maps from $D$ to $E$, ordered pointwise. A nonempty directed family has pointwise supremum, and the constant-bottom function is least. Joint evaluation is Scott continuous: for a directed family of pairs $(f_i,x_i)$, directedness makes diagonal values cofinal among all $f_i(x_j)$. Evaluation and currying make the category of pointed complete partial orders and non-strict Scott continuous maps a Cartesian closed category.

For Scott continuous maps $e:D\to E$, $p:E\to D$, these two identities say that $D$ is embedded in $E$ and that projection followed by embedding approximates from below. Such pairs lift to endomorphism spaces by $f\mapsto efp$ and $g\mapsto pge$. Their composite on the smaller space is the identity, and the other composite is $g\mapsto (ep)g(ep)\le g$.

Zero Euler characteristic and $H_3=0$ give free rank $b_1-1$. The universal coefficient theorem for cohomology identifies $H^3(M;\mathbb{Z})=\mathbb{Z}/2$ with $\mathrm{Ext}(H_2(M;\mathbb{Z}),\mathbb{Z})$, so the only torsion in $H_2$ is one copy of $\mathbb{Z}/2$. In particular $b_1\ge 1$.

For a closed oriented manifold, the rational middle-dimensional cup-product pairing is nondegenerate by Poincare duality. Its degree is odd, so graded commutativity makes it skew-symmetric. A nondegenerate skew-symmetric form has even dimension. In particular a closed oriented six-manifold cannot have a rank-one third cohomology group.

// Target: algebra.bigb

A thin disk with alpha disk viscosity $\nu \sim \alpha H^2\Omega$ has a viscous timescale much longer than its dynamical infall time in the plunging region of a black-hole accretion disk. At fixed nonzero accretion rate, rapid inflow reduces its surface density of a disk. The resulting viscous torque in an accretion disk is smaller by the displayed factor than in the slowly drifting circular disk. This estimate concerns radii outside the narrow matching layers.

For a high-sound-speed, low-density atmosphere over a denser stellar envelope, set ${\omega }^2=gk(1-\epsilon )$ in the plane-parallel Cowling displacement-pressure equations. Define $I_a={\int }_{-\infty }^{z_0}{e}^{2k(z-z_0)}{\rho }^{-1}dz$ and $I_b={\int }_{z_0}^{\infty }{e}^{-2k(z-z_0)}\rho dz$. The lower leading solution has $\Pi /\xi =-2\epsilon gk{I}_b$ at the match. Above, write $\rho =\epsilon \hat{\rho }$, $\Pi =\epsilon \psi$, $\xi =\mu \psi$. The upward-decaying solution satisfies ${\mu }^{\prime }+2k\mu =-k/(g\hat{\rho })$, so $\mu (z_0)=-(k/g)\epsilon I_a$. Writing $f=\Pi /(\epsilon \xi )$ below, continuity of displacement and Lagrangian pressure requires $\mu (z_0)f(z_0)=1$, giving the displayed condition. The integrals must converge and the upper displacement must actually decay. For two constant-density incompressible layers it gives $\epsilon \simeq 2{\rho }_a/{\rho }_b$, the expansion of the exact interfacial gravity-wave dispersion relation.

Choose $M\asymp {\delta }^{-1}$ angularly separated unit segments in a bounded Kakeya set, and let $F$ sum the indicators of their Kakeya tubes. Then $\int F\asymp 1$. Two tubes at angular separation $\alpha$ intersect in area at most $C{\delta }^2/(\delta +\alpha )$, so summing each harmonic angular row gives $\int F^2\lesssim \log (2/\delta )$. The Cauchy-Schwarz inequality on their union proves the displayed neighborhood lower bound. Since $|E_{\delta }|\lesssim {\delta }^2{N}_{\delta }(E)$, both planar Minkowski dimensions equal two.

For a stationary planar advected magnetic flux potential, average its advection-diffusion equation horizontally and split it into mean and fluctuation. The mean transport is $\overline{w{a}^{\prime }}=\eta {\bar{a}}_z+C$, with $C=⟨w{a}^{\prime }⟩$. Multiplying the fluctuation equation by $a^{\prime }$ and applying integration by parts gives $⟨\overline{w{a}^{\prime }}{\bar{a}}_z⟩+B_{0}C=-\eta ⟨|\nabla a^{\prime }{|}^2⟩$. A vanishing mean derivative removes the constant term in the first correlation, yielding the displayed dissipative identity. The boundary assumptions must eliminate surface terms; a periodic layer replaces, rather than accompanies, decay at vertical infinity.

The Picard group of a commutative ring $A$ consists of isomorphism classes of finitely generated projective modules that have rank one at every prime ideal. Tensor product is the group law, $[A]$ is the identity, and the module dual supplies the inverse. For an integral domain, every such module can be represented by an invertible fractional ideal after choosing a basis over the fraction field.

For a smooth projective geometrically connected algebraic curve $C/k$, this functor assigns to a scheme $T$ the line bundles on $C\times T$ having degree $d$ on each geometric fibre, modulo bundles pulled back from $T$. One generally takes the associated sheaf for faithfully flat covers. A rational point of $C$ permits normalization of every line bundle along that point; normalized bundles have no automorphisms preserving their normalization and satisfy effective descent. The resulting functor is represented by the degree-$d$ component of the Picard scheme of a curve.

For a smooth projective curve, the degree-zero Picard group consists of line bundles of degree zero up to isomorphism, with tensor product as addition. A nonzero rational section of a line bundle identifies each line bundle with $\mathcal{O}(D)$ for a divisor on an algebraic curve; degree is the sum of multiplicities weighted by residue-field degrees. Over an algebraically closed field, every degree-zero divisor is a sum of differences of points.

For any field $k$, degree identifies the Picard group of the projective line with $\mathbb{Z}$, generated by $\mathcal{O}(1)$. A closed point on the affine chart is cut out by an irreducible polynomial $f(t)$, whose divisor is that point minus $\mathrm{deg}(f)$ times infinity. Hence every divisor is linearly equivalent to its degree times infinity. Principal divisors have degree zero, so the degree map is injective as well as surjective. Thus a line bundle of degree $d$ is $\mathcal{O}(d)$.

For a real triplet with potential $\lambda ({\Phi }^2-v^2{)}^2/8$, unitary gauge gives $\Phi =(0,0,v+h)$ and scalar interaction terms $-\lambda v{h}^3/2-\lambda h^4/8+2e^{2}vh{W}^{+}{W}^{-}+e^2{h}^2{W}^{+}{W}^{-}$. Functional differentiation, including identical-field multiplicities, gives vertices $-3i\lambda v$, $-3i\lambda$, $2i{e}^{2}v{g}_{\mu \nu }$ and $2i{e}^2{g}_{\mu \nu }$ respectively. The physical scalar is neutral under the residual U(1), so there are no $hAA$ or $hhAA$ vertices.

The solidus bounds the entirely solid equilibrium region of a phase diagram. For a linear liquidus $T_L(C_l)=-m{C}_l$ and a constant segregation coefficient $C_s=k_D{C}_l$, the corresponding solidus is $T_S(C_s)=-m{C}_s/k_D$. The concentration argument is the solid concentration, not the neighboring liquid concentration.

The phase rule counts independent intensive controls compatible with coexistence of $P$ distinct bulk thermodynamic phases made from $C$ independent components:Here $P$ counts thermodynamic phases, not pressure, and $F$ does not count phase fractions. For the nonreacting one-component case, $C=1$ and $F=3-P$: a single thermodynamic phase occupies a region with $F=2$, two-thermodynamic phase coexistence a curve with $F=1$, and a triple point an isolated point with $F=0$. Fixing pressure externally removes one adjustable control wherever that constraint is independent.^[ref]

For an elementary count without chemical reactions, take $C$ chemical species. Each thermodynamic phase has $C-1$ independent composition fractions, since they sum to one. Shared temperature and pressure add two controls, giving $2+P(C-1)$. Equality of each species' chemical potential between one reference thermodynamic phase and the other $P-1$ thermodynamic phases supplies $C(P-1)$ constraints. Subtraction gives $2+P(C-1)-C(P-1)=C-P+2$. This argument assumes the constraints are independent and treats interfaces as negligible; chemical reactions, external fields or critical mergers require appropriate qualifications.

Here $\Delta =\sqrt{(r-\delta -{\sigma }^2/2{)}^2+2r{\sigma }^2}$. Implicit differentiation of the negative-root equation gives $d{\beta }_{-}/d\delta =-{\beta }_{-}/\Delta >0$. Differentiating $S^{\ast }=X{\beta }_{-}/({\beta }_{-}-1)$ gives the displayed negative derivative. A higher proportional dividend yield lowers risk-neutral stock growth and makes waiting for lower stock prices more attractive to the put holder.

In slotted ALOHA, let old packets retry independently with fixed probability $0<p<1$, and let independent Poisson random variables of mean $\nu >0$ transmit once on arrival. Write $q=1-p$ and $r=e^{-\nu p}$. A hypothetical process which never removes a packet has backlog $b+A_t$, where $A_t$ is the cumulative arrival count over $t$ slots. Couple its attempts to those of the actual process until the first noncollision. Its one-slot noncollision probability at backlog $n$ is $h(n)=e^{-\nu }[(1+\nu )q^n+np{q}^{n-1}]$. The union bound and the Poisson distribution giveIndeed $\mathbb{E}[q^{A_t}]=r^t$ and $\mathbb{E}[A_t{q}^{A_t}]=\nu tq{r}^t$. Thus $\epsilon (b)\to 0$. From every sufficiently large backlog, permanent collisions have probability at least $1/2$. Independent arrival batches reach that threshold almost surely; after each failed attempt the Strong Markov property permits another attempt. The probability of $k$ consecutive failures is at most $2^{-k}$, proving almost-sure eventual permanent collisions without assuming in advance that the backlog escapes.