Suppose $|A|>|B|>0$ in ${\mathbb{F}}_p$. Put $a=|A|$ and $b^{\prime }=\min (|B|,p+2-a)$, and choose $B^{\prime }\subseteq B$ of size $b^{\prime }$. Let $r=a+b^{\prime }-2$. If the restricted sumset fits in a set $D$ of size $r-1$, then $(x-y){\prod }_{d\in D}(x+y-d)$ vanishes on $A\times B^{\prime }$. Its coefficient of $x^{a-1}{y}^{b^{\prime }-1}$ isAll factorial arguments are below $p$ and $0<a-b^{\prime }<p$. The Combinatorial Nullstellensatz gives a contradiction. Since $r=\min (p,|A|+|B|-2)$, this includes the saturated case as well as the small-set case.

Attach relators for every identity word of length at most $2K+2$, where $K$ is an integer fellow-traveller constant. For any null loop, connect its consecutive combing paths at integer heights by rungs of length at most $K$. Each resulting quadrilateral has perimeter at most $2K+2$ and thus is a relator. The bottom row is collapsed at the identity and the top row is the original loop, so these finitely many relators fill every null word and present the group.

If graphs $G_i$ cover the edges of an $n$-vertex graph with independence number at most $\alpha$, their coloring entropy weights satisfy the displayed bound. A random vertex's color is recorded in every covering graph containing it; independent dummy colors with matching marginal laws fill the other positions. Conditional on all recorded colors, compatible vertices form an independent set, leaving conditional entropy at most ${\log }_2\alpha$. The mutual information carried by the colors is at most $n^{-1}{\sum }_{i}w(G_i)$, proving the bound.

A colour singlet transforms in the trivial representation of the SU(3) colour group. Global colour rotations leave it invariant, and its colour generators annihilate it. A three-quark colour singlet uses the completely antisymmetric colour tensor; a quark–antiquark singlet contracts their colour indices.

Substitute the instantaneous Sine-Gordon kink profile ${\theta }_K(\gamma (x-X))$ and prescribed velocity $-\gamma \dot{X}{\theta }_K^{\prime }$ with $\gamma =(1-{\dot{X}}^2{)}^{-1/2}$ into the field density. For $A_1=0$, $A_0=xf(t)$, the integrals $\int ({\theta }_K^{\prime }{)}^2=8$ and $\int {\theta }_K^{\prime }=2\pi$ give the displayed collective-coordinate effective Lagrangian. Its equation is $d(8\gamma \dot{X})/dt=-2\pi f$. This is relativistic particle motion with mass $8$ and topological coupling charge $2\pi$. When $\gamma$ varies, the prescribed velocity omits a width-change contribution; acceleration correction for an instantaneous boosted kink describes the exact chain-rule distinction.

A coproduct is a colimit of a discrete diagram: it has injections from each summand and every family of maps out of the summands extends uniquely across it.

The dual universal family is a coend $Q$ with maps $i_C:T(C,C)\to Q$ satisfying $i_{C}T(f,1_C)=i_{D}T(1_D,f)$ on $T(D,C)$. Every compatible family to another object factors uniquely through $Q$. For small $\mathcal{C}$ in a cocomplete category, it is the coequalizer ${\coprod }_{f:C\to D}T(D,C)\rightrightarrows {\coprod }_{C}T(C,C)\to Q$.

For the regular growing mode in a purely matter-dominated flat background, $h=-2{\delta }_c$ and ${\delta }_c=C{\tau }^2$. The synchronous Einstein constraint $\mathcal{H}{h}^{\prime }+k^2{h}^{-}/3=3{\mathcal{H}}^2{\delta }_c$ with $\mathcal{H}=2/\tau$ gives $h^{-}=60C/k^2$. Hence $\zeta =h^{-}/6+{\delta }_c/3=10C/k^2+C{\tau }^2/3$, conserved to leading order on superhorizon scales. Identifying its early constant value gives the displayed density transfer; it includes a $k^2$ factor that is factored out of the conventionally normalized matter transfer function.

In the idealization that subhorizon cold matter freezes during radiation domination, early-entering modes have an entry density of order the primordial curvature, retain it until equality, and then share the same matter-era growth factor. Their density-per-curvature transfer becomes approximately independent of $k$. Matching this plateau to the matter-era $k^2$ transfer gives the displayed sharp-transition model, with its high-$k$ coefficient dependent on the matching convention. A scale-invariant curvature spectrum then gives density power proportional to $k$ below equality and $k^{-3}$ above it. Actual cold matter grows logarithmically in the radiation era, adding the familiar high-$k$ logarithms of the Mészáros effect.

The matter equation in the barotropic matter-string model contains no wavenumber. Growing initial data therefore evolve as ${\delta }_c(k,\eta )=A_{k}D(\eta )$ with the same $D$ for every mode. For regular adiabatic modes initially outside the horizon during matter domination, $A_k$ is proportional to $k^2$ times the primordial curvature amplitude. The density-per-curvature transfer is consequently proportional to $k^{2}D(\eta )$ for modes entering after equality. Factoring out both $k^2$ and $D$ gives a constant shape transfer on those scales. Comparing with continued matter-era growth instead introduces the common suppression $D(\eta )/\eta$, not a new wavenumber dependence.

Assume all relevant modes begin outside the horizon at common conformal time ${\tau }_i$, grow as ${\tau }^2$ until radiation-era horizon entry, then freeze until matter-radiation equality, and again grow as ${\tau }^2$ in matter domination. With horizon entry ${\tau }_h=2\pi /k$, $k_{\mathrm{eq}}=2\pi /{\tau }_{\mathrm{eq}}$ and final time ${\tau }_0$, direct multiplication of the growth factors gives the displayed transfer with $G=({\tau }_0/{\tau }_i{)}^2$. A primordial density power spectrum $P_i=Ak$ becomes $P_0=A{G}^{2}k$ below equality wavenumber and $A{G}^2{k}_{\mathrm{eq}}^4{k}^{-3}$ above it. This approximation neglects the true logarithmic radiation-era matter growth, baryonic acoustic structure and late acceleration; a conventionally normalized transfer divides out $G$.

For coincident D3-branes in the critical 26-dimensional bosonic string theory, the massless open-string oscillator has a four-dimensional gauge vector and 22 transverse scalar fields. Chan-Paton factors put all these fields in the adjoint of $U(k)$ for $k$ coincident branes. Ignoring the tachyon, their leading interactions are the dimensional reduction of 26-dimensional Yang-Mills theory. This contains a Yang-Mills sector but is not pure four-dimensional Yang-Mills theory and is not the supersymmetric six-scalar D3-brane theory of the ten-dimensional superstring.

Give $(S^2{)}^m$ its product orientation and ${\mathbb{CP}}^m$ its complex orientation. If $u_i$ are the degree-two sphere classes and $h$ the normalized projective class, write $f^{\ast }h={\sum }_i{a}_i{u}_i$. In the source cohomology ring, $u_i^2=0$ and the generators commute. Hence $f^{\ast }{h}^m=m!({\prod }_i{a}_i)u_1\cdots u_m$. Evaluation on the fundamental class gives the displayed mapping degree. Every positive degree is therefore at least $m!$, and the polynomial multiplication map to complex projective space attains that bound.

Give Complex projective space its complex orientation. In the homology cross product basis of $H_{2n}({\mathbb{CP}}^n\times {\mathbb{CP}}^n;\mathbb{Z})$, the diagonal has the displayed class. If $a,b$ are the two normalized degree-two hyperplane classes, its Poincare dual is ${\sum }_{j=0}^n{a}^j{b}^{n-j}$. Indeed every degree-$2n$ monomial $a^r{b}^{n-r}$ restricts on the diagonal to the top power of the hyperplane class, whose evaluation on the fundamental class is one. These evaluations determine all coefficients.

The cohomology ring of the product of two real projective planes is ${\mathbb{F}}_2[x,y]/(x^3,y^3)$, with $|x|=|y|=1$. Pairing against $x^2$, $xy$ and $y^2$ identifies the Poincare dual of the diagonal as $x^2+xy+y^2$. For a self-map $f$ with $f^{\ast }x=\epsilon x$, the graph pullback evaluates on the mod-two fundamental class as $1+\epsilon +{\epsilon }^2=1$. Thus no graph of a map on the whole projective plane can avoid the diagonal. The argument uses a relative Thom class and does not assume transverse intersections.

The amplitude spread function is the complex field response to an optical point source. Its squared magnitude, with a specified point spread function normalization, gives the intensity point spread function.

The cyclic stability is the largest size of an independent set appearing consecutively in a representative of a coherent cyclic order of a digraph. It is at most the ordinary independence number. A set with no forward path between its distinct vertices can be moved into a consecutive block by swapping nonadjacent vertices. Choose a representative minimizing the span of the set; a vertex in a gap can be moved left or right past the block, contradicting minimality unless there are no gaps.

A cofiber sequence of spectra $A\to B\to C\to \Sigma A$ induces exact sequences after either mapping into or out of a fixed topological spectrum, and on stable homotopy groups. In particular the second map is zero precisely when the first map admits a right inverse in the stable homotopy category.

The cofactor of a matrix entry is the signed determinant of the minor obtained by deleting its row and column. These scalars form the cofactor matrix, and their transpose forms the adjugate matrix. They give row and column expansions of the determinant, including for singular matrices.

Suppose binary ages have uniform coordinate $y\in [0,1]$ and independently sampled component masses give disjoint conditional state fractions $g(y)=ay$ and $w(y)=by$. Integrating the conditional pair probabilities gives $P(GG)=a^2/3$, $P(GW)=2ab/3$, and $P(WW)=b^2/3$. The fraction with at least one $G$ is $a-a^2/3$, and the fraction of those systems with a second evolved component is $(a^2+2ab)/(3a-a^2)$. Components share their age, so their unconditional states are correlated even when their birth masses have independence.